Tunable wireless power architectures

ABSTRACT

Described herein are improved configurations for a wireless power transfer. The parameters of components of the wireless energy transfer system are adjusted to control the power delivered to the load at the device. The power output of the source amplifier is controlled to maintain a substantially 50% duty cycle at the rectifier of the device.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 15/168,853 filed May 31, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/567,893 filed Aug. 6, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,384,885, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application 61/515,324 filed Aug. 4, 2011. The contents of the prior applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

BACKGROUND Field

This disclosure relates to wireless energy transfer, methods, systems and apparati to accomplish such transfer, and applications.

Description of the Related Art

Energy or power may be transferred wirelessly using a variety of known radiative, or far-field, and non-radiative, or near-field, techniques as detailed, for example, in commonly owned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/613,686 published on May 6, 2010 as US 2010/010909445 and entitled “Wireless Energy Transfer Systems,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/860,375 published on Dec. 9, 2010 as 2010/0308939 and entitled “Integrated Resonator-Shield Structures,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/222,915 published on Mar. 15, 2012 as 2012/0062345 and entitled “Low Resistance Electrical Conductor,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/283,811 published on Oct. 4, 2012 as 2012/0248981 and entitled “Multi-Resonator Wireless Energy Transfer for Lighting,” the contents of which are incorporated by reference. Prior art wireless energy transfer systems have been limited by a variety of factors including concerns over user safety, low energy transfer efficiencies and restrictive physical proximity/alignment tolerances for the energy supply and sink components.

One particular challenge in wireless energy transfer is control and tuning of the resonator structures and the power source to deliver controlled power to a load. In a wireless energy transfer system the source and device may move or change position. As the relative positioning of the system elements change the characteristic of the wireless energy transfer changes. Coupling between the source and device may change reducing the efficiency of energy transfer for example. Changes in the wireless energy transfer characteristics may change the power delivered to the load or cause unwanted fluctuations in the power delivered to a load at the device. A need exists for methods and designs for tunable wireless energy transfer system with tunable components to maintain efficient and constant energy delivery to a load at a device despite changes in the positioning, coupling, orientation, and the like of the system components.

SUMMARY

Various systems and processes, in various embodiments, provide wireless energy transfer using coupled resonators. In some embodiments, the wireless energy transfer system may require or benefit from a capability to verify and authenticate the source and the sink of the wireless energy. The features of such embodiments are general and may be applied to a wide range of resonators, regardless of the specific examples discussed herein.

In embodiments, a magnetic resonator may comprise some combination of inductors and capacitors. Additional circuit elements such as capacitors, inductors, resistors, switches, and the like, may be inserted between a magnetic resonator and a power source, and/or between a magnetic resonator and a power load. In this disclosure, the conducting coil that comprises the high-Q inductive loop of the resonator may be referred to as the inductor and/or the inductive load. The inductive load may also refer to the inductor when it is wirelessly coupled (through a mutual inductance) to other system or extraneous objects. In this disclosure, circuit elements other than the inductive load may be referred to as being part of an impedance matching network or IMN. It is to be understood that all, some, or none of the elements that are referred to as being part of an impedance matching network may be part of the magnetic resonator. Which elements are part of the resonator and which are separate from the resonator will depend on the specific magnetic resonator and wireless energy transfer system design.

Unless otherwise indicated, this disclosure uses the terms wireless energy transfer, wireless power transfer, wireless power transmission, and the like, interchangeably. Those skilled in the art will understand that a variety of system architectures may be supported by the wide range of wireless system designs and functionalities described in this application.

In the wireless energy transfer systems described herein, power may be exchanged wirelessly between at least two resonators. Resonators may supply, receive, hold, transfer, and distribute energy. Sources of wireless power may be referred to as sources or supplies and receivers of wireless power may be referred to as devices, receivers and power loads. A resonator may be a source, a device, or both, simultaneously or may vary from one function to another in a controlled manner. Resonators configured to hold or distribute energy that do not have wired connections to a power supply or power drain may be called repeaters.

The resonators of the wireless energy transfer systems of this invention are able to transfer power over distances that are large compared to the size of the resonators themselves. That is, if the resonator size is characterized by the radius of the smallest sphere that could enclose the resonator structure, the wireless energy transfer system of this invention can transfer power over distances greater than the characteristic size of a resonator. The system is able to exchange energy between resonators where the resonators have different characteristic sizes and where the inductive elements of the resonators have different sizes, different shapes, are comprised of different materials, and the like.

The wireless energy transfer systems of this invention may be described as having a coupling region, an energized area or volume, all by way of describing that energy may be transferred between resonant objects that are separated from each other, they may have variable distance from each other, and that may be moving relative to each other. In some embodiments, the area or volume over which energy can be transferred is referred to as the active field area or volume. In addition, the wireless energy transfer system may comprise more than two resonators that may each be coupled to a power source, a power load, both, or neither.

Wirelessly supplied energy may be used to power electric or electronic equipment, recharge batteries or charge energy storage units. Multiple devices may be charged or powered simultaneously or power delivery to multiple devices may be serialized such that one or more devices receive power for a period of time after which power delivery may be switched to other devices. In various embodiments, multiple devices may share power from one or more sources with one or more other devices either simultaneously, or in a time multiplexed manner, or in a frequency multiplexed manner, or in a spatially multiplexed manner, or in an orientation multiplexed manner, or in any combination of time and frequency and spatial and orientation multiplexing. Multiple devices may share power with each other, with at least one device being reconfigured continuously, intermittently, periodically, occasionally, or temporarily, to operate as a wireless power source. Those of ordinary skill in the art will understand that there are a variety of ways to power and/or charge devices applicable to the technologies and applications described herein.

This disclosure references certain individual circuit components and elements such as capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transformers, switches and the like; combinations of these elements as networks, topologies, circuits, and the like; and objects that have inherent characteristics such as “self-resonant” objects with capacitance or inductance distributed (or partially distributed, as opposed to solely lumped) throughout the entire object. It would be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art that adjusting and controlling variable components within a circuit or network may adjust the performance of that circuit or network and that those adjustments may be described generally as tuning, adjusting, matching, correcting, and the like. Other methods to tune or adjust the operating point of the wireless power transfer system may be used alone, or in addition to adjusting tunable components such as inductors and capacitors, or banks of inductors and capacitors. Those skilled in the art will recognize that a particular topology discussed in this disclosure can be implemented in a variety of other ways.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. In case of conflict with publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned or incorporated herein by reference, the present specification, including definitions, will control.

Any of the features described above may be used, alone or in combination, without departing from the scope of this disclosure. Other features, objects, and advantages of the systems and methods disclosed herein will be apparent from the following detailed description and figures.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a system block diagram of wireless energy transfer configurations.

FIGS. 2A-2F are exemplary structures and schematics of simple resonator structures.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a wireless source with a single-ended amplifier.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a wireless source with a differential amplifier.

FIGS. 5A and 5B are block diagrams of sensing circuits.

FIGS. 6A, 6B, and 6C are block diagrams of a wireless source.

FIG. 7 is a plot showing the effects of a duty cycle on the parameters of an amplifier.

FIG. 8 is a simplified circuit diagram of a wireless power source with a switching amplifier.

FIG. 9 shows plots of the effects of changes of parameters of a wireless power source.

FIG. 10 shows plots of the effects of changes of parameters of a wireless power source.

FIGS. 11A, 11B, and 11C are plots showing the effects of changes of parameters of a wireless power source.

FIG. 12 shows plots of the effects of changes of parameters of a wireless power source.

FIG. 13 is a simplified circuit diagram of a wireless energy transfer system comprising a wireless power source with a switching amplifier and a wireless power device.

FIG. 14 shows plots of the effects of changes of parameters of a wireless power source.

FIG. 15 is a diagram of a resonator showing possible nonuniform magnetic field distributions due to irregular spacing between tiles of magnetic material.

FIG. 16 is a resonator with an arrangement of tiles in a block of magnetic material that may reduce hotspots in the magnetic material block.

FIG. 17A is a resonator with a block of magnetic material comprising smaller individual tiles and 17B and 17C is the resonator with additional strips of thermally conductive material used for thermal management.

FIG. 18 is block diagram of a wireless energy transfer system with in-band and out-of-band communication channels.

FIG. 19A and FIG. 19B are steps that may be used to verify the energy transfer channel using an out-of-band communication channel.

FIG. 20A and FIG. 20B are block diagrams of wireless energy transfer system electronics.

FIG. 21A and FIG. 21B are block diagrams of wireless energy transfer system with tunable electronics.

FIG. 22A and FIG. 22B are simplified schematics of wireless energy transfer system with tunable electronics, and FIG. 22C is detailed embodiment of switching elements.

FIG. 23A-23D are graphs showing the operation of the amplifier.

FIG. 24 is a block diagram of an embodiment of a tunable wireless energy transfer system.

FIG. 25 is a schematic of an embodiment of a tunable wireless energy transfer system.

FIG. 26 is a schematic of an embodiment of a source with a balanced impedance matching network.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As described above, this disclosure relates to wireless energy transfer using coupled electromagnetic resonators. However, such energy transfer is not restricted to electromagnetic resonators, and the wireless energy transfer systems described herein are more general and may be implemented using a wide variety of resonators and resonant objects.

As those skilled in the art will recognize, important considerations for resonator-based power transfer include resonator efficiency and resonator coupling. Extensive discussion of such issues, e.g., coupled mode theory (CMT), coupling coefficients and factors, quality factors (also referred to asQ-factors), and impedance matching is provided, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/789,611 published on Sep. 23, 2010 as US 20100237709 and entitled “RESONATOR ARRAYS FOR WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER,” and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/722,050 published on Jul. 22, 2010 as US 20100181843 and entitled “WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSFER FOR REFRIGERATOR APPLICATION” and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety as if fully set forth herein.

A resonator may be defined as a resonant structure that can store energy in at least two different forms, and where the stored energy oscillates between the two forms. The resonant structure will have a specific oscillation mode with a resonant (modal) frequency, f, and a resonant (modal) field. The angular resonant frequency, ω may be defined as ω=2πf the resonant period, T, may be defined as T=1/f=2π/ω, and the resonant wavelength, λ, may be defined as λ=c/f, where c is the speed of the associated field waves (light, for electromagnetic resonators). In the absence of loss mechanisms, coupling mechanisms or external energy supplying or draining mechanisms, the total amount of energy stored by the resonator, W, would stay fixed, but the form of the energy would oscillate between the two forms supported by the resonator, wherein one form would be maximum when the other is minimum and vice versa.

For example, a resonator may be constructed such that the two forms of stored energy are magnetic energy and electric energy. Further, the resonator may be constructed such that the electric energy stored by the electric field is primarily confined within the structure while the magnetic energy stored by the magnetic field is primarily in the region surrounding the resonator. In other words, the total electric and magnetic energies would be equal, but their localization would be different. Using such structures, energy exchange between at least two structures may be mediated by the resonant magnetic near-field of the at least two resonators. These types of resonators may be referred to as magnetic resonators.

An important parameter of resonators used in wireless power transmission systems is the Quality Factor, or Q-factor, or Q, of the resonator, which characterizes the energy decay and is inversely proportional to energy losses of the resonator. It may be defined as Q=ω*W/P, where P is the time-averaged power lost at steady state. That is, a resonator with a high-Q has relatively low intrinsic losses and can store energy for a relatively long time. Since the resonator loses energy at its intrinsic decay rate, 2Γ, its Q, also referred to as its intrinsic Q, is given by Q=ω/2Γ. The quality factor also represents the number of oscillation periods, T, it takes for the energy in the resonator to decay by a factor of e^(−2π). Note that the quality factor or intrinsic quality factor or Q of the resonator is that due only to intrinsic loss mechanisms. The Q of a resonator connected to, or coupled to a power generator, g, or load, l, may be called the “loaded quality factor” or the “loaded Q”. The Q of a resonator in the presence of an extraneous object that is not intended to be part of the energy transfer system may be called the “perturbed quality factor” or the “perturbed Q”.

Resonators, coupled through any portion of their near-fields may interact and exchange energy. The efficiency of this energy transfer can be significantly enhanced if the resonators operate at substantially the same resonant frequency. By way of example, but not limitation, imagine a source resonator with Q_(s) and a device resonator with Q_(d). High-Q wireless energy transfer systems may utilize resonators that are high-Q. The Q of each resonator may be high. The geometric mean of the resonator Q's, √{square root over (Q_(s)Q_(d))} may also or instead be high.

The coupling factor, k, is a number between 0≤|k|≤1, and it may be independent (or nearly independent) of the resonant frequencies of the source and device resonators, when those are placed at sub-wavelength distances. Rather the coupling factor k may be determined mostly by the relative geometry and the distance between the source and device resonators where the physical decay-law of the field mediating their coupling is taken into account. The coupling coefficient used in CMT, κ=k√{square root over (ω_(s)ω_(d))} /2, may be a strong function of the resonant frequencies, as well as other properties of the resonator structures. In applications for wireless energy transfer utilizing the near-fields of the resonators, it is desirable to have the size of the resonator be much smaller than the resonant wavelength, so that power lost by radiation is reduced. In some embodiments, high-Q resonators are sub-wavelength structures. In some electromagnetic embodiments, high-Q resonator structures are designed to have resonant frequencies higher than 100 kHz. In other embodiments, the resonant frequencies may be less than 1 GHz.

In exemplary embodiments, the power radiated into the far-field by these sub wavelength resonators may be further reduced by lowering the resonant frequency of the resonators and the operating frequency of the system. In other embodiments, the far field radiation may be reduced by arranging for the far fields of two or more resonators to interfere destructively in the far field.

In a wireless energy transfer system a resonator may be used as a wireless energy source, a wireless energy capture device, a repeater or a combination thereof. In embodiments a resonator may alternate between transferring energy, receiving energy or relaying energy. In a wireless energy transfer system one or more magnetic resonators may be coupled to an energy source and be energized to produce an oscillating magnetic near-field. Other resonators that are within the oscillating magnetic near-fields may capture these fields and convert the energy into electrical energy that may be used to power or charge a load thereby enabling wireless transfer of useful energy.

The so-called “useful” energy in a useful energy exchange is the energy or power that must be delivered to a device in order to power or charge it at an acceptable rate. The transfer efficiency that corresponds to a useful energy exchange may be system or application-dependent. For example, high power vehicle charging applications that transfer kilowatts of power may need to be at least 80% efficient in order to supply useful amounts of power resulting in a useful energy exchange sufficient to recharge a vehicle battery without significantly heating up various components of the transfer system. In some consumer electronics applications, a useful energy exchange may include any energy transfer efficiencies greater than 10%, or any other amount acceptable to keep rechargeable batteries “topped off” and running for long periods of time. In implanted medical device applications, a useful energy exchange may be any exchange that does not harm the patient but that extends the life of a battery or wakes up a sensor or monitor or stimulator. In such applications, 100 mW of power or less may be useful. In distributed sensing applications, power transfer of microwatts may be useful, and transfer efficiencies may be well below 1%.

A useful energy exchange for wireless energy transfer in a powering or recharging application may be efficient, highly efficient, or efficient enough, as long as the wasted energy levels, heat dissipation, and associated field strengths are within tolerable limits and are balanced appropriately with related factors such as cost, weight, size, and the like.

The resonators may be referred to as source resonators, device resonators, first resonators, second resonators, repeater resonators, and the like. Implementations may include three (3) or more resonators. For example, a single source resonator may transfer energy to multiple device resonators or multiple devices. Energy may be transferred from a first device to a second, and then from the second device to the third, and so forth. Multiple sources may transfer energy to a single device or to multiple devices connected to a single device resonator or to multiple devices connected to multiple device resonators. Resonators may serve alternately or simultaneously as sources, devices, and/or they may be used to relay power from a source in one location to a device in another location. Intermediate electromagnetic resonators may be used to extend the distance range of wireless energy transfer systems and/or to generate areas of concentrated magnetic near-fields. Multiple resonators may be daisy-chained together, exchanging energy over extended distances and with a wide range of sources and devices. For example, a source resonator may transfer power to a device resonator via several repeater resonators. Energy from a source may be transferred to a first repeater resonator, the first repeater resonator may transfer the power to a second repeater resonator and the second to a third and so on until the final repeater resonator transfers its energy to a device resonator. In this respect the range or distance of wireless energy transfer may be extended and/or tailored by adding repeater resonators. High power levels may be split between multiple sources, transferred to multiple devices and recombined at a distant location.

The resonators may be designed using coupled mode theory models, circuit models, electromagnetic field models, and the like. The resonators may be designed to have tunable characteristic sizes. The resonators may be designed to handle different power levels. In exemplary embodiments, high power resonators may require larger conductors and higher current or voltage rated components than lower power resonators.

FIG. 1 shows a diagram of exemplary configurations and arrangements of a wireless energy transfer system. A wireless energy transfer system may include at least one source resonator (R1) 104 (optionally R6, 112) coupled to an energy source 102 and optionally a sensor and control unit 108. The energy source may be a source of any type of energy capable of being converted into electrical energy that may be used to drive the source resonator 104. The energy source may be a battery, a solar panel, the electrical mains, a wind or water turbine, an electromagnetic resonator, a generator, and the like. The electrical energy used to drive the magnetic resonator is converted into oscillating magnetic fields by the resonator. The oscillating magnetic fields may be captured by other resonators which may be device resonators (R2) 106, (R3) 116 that are optionally coupled to an energy drain 110. The oscillating fields may be optionally coupled to repeater resonators (R4, R5) that are configured to extend or tailor the wireless energy transfer region. Device resonators may capture the magnetic fields in the vicinity of source resonator(s), repeater resonators and other device resonators and convert them into electrical energy that may be used by an energy drain. The energy drain 110 may be an electrical, electronic, mechanical or chemical device and the like configured to receive electrical energy. Repeater resonators may capture magnetic fields in the vicinity of source, device and repeater resonator(s) and may pass the energy on to other resonators.

A wireless energy transfer system may comprise a single source resonator 104 coupled to an energy source 102 and a single device resonator 106 coupled to an energy drain 110. In embodiments a wireless energy transfer system may comprise multiple source resonators coupled to one or more energy sources and may comprise multiple device resonators coupled to one or more energy drains.

In embodiments the energy may be transferred directly between a source resonator 104 and a device resonator 106. In other embodiments the energy may be transferred from one or more source resonators 104, 112 to one or more device resonators 106, 116 via any number of intermediate resonators which may be device resonators, source resonators, repeater resonators, and the like. Energy may be transferred via a network or arrangement of resonators 114 that may include subnetworks 118, 120 arranged in any combination of topologies such as token ring, mesh, ad hoc, and the like.

In embodiments the wireless energy transfer system may comprise a centralized sensing and control system 108. In embodiments parameters of the resonators, energy sources, energy drains, network topologies, operating parameters, etc. may be monitored and adjusted from a control processor to meet specific operating parameters of the system. A central control processor may adjust parameters of individual components of the system to optimize global energy transfer efficiency, to optimize the amount of power transferred, and the like. Other embodiments may be designed to have a substantially distributed sensing and control system. Sensing and control may be incorporated into each resonator or group of resonators, energy sources, energy drains, and the like and may be configured to adjust the parameters of the individual components in the group to maximize or minimize the power delivered, to maximize energy transfer efficiency in that group and the like.

In embodiments, components of the wireless energy transfer system may have wireless or wired data communication links to other components such as devices, sources, repeaters, power sources, resonators, and the like and may transmit or receive data that can be used to enable the distributed or centralized sensing and control. A wireless communication channel may be separate from the wireless energy transfer channel, or it may be the same. In one embodiment the resonators used for power exchange may also be used to exchange information. In some cases, information may be exchanged by modulating a component in a source or device circuit and sensing that change with port parameter or other monitoring equipment. Resonators may signal each other by tuning, changing, varying, dithering, and the like, the resonator parameters such as the impedance of the resonators which may affect the reflected impedance of other resonators in the system. The systems and methods described herein may enable the simultaneous transmission of power and communication signals between resonators in wireless power transmission systems, or it may enable the transmission of power and communication signals during different time periods or at different frequencies using the same magnetic fields that are used during the wireless energy transfer. In other embodiments wireless communication may be enabled with a separate wireless communication channel such as WiFi, Bluetooth, Infrared, NFC, and the like.

In embodiments, a wireless energy transfer system may include multiple resonators and overall system performance may be improved by control of various elements in the system. For example, devices with lower power requirements may tune their resonant frequency away from the resonant frequency of a high-power source that supplies power to devices with higher power requirements. For another example, devices needing less power may adjust their rectifier circuits so that they draw less power from the source. In these ways, low and high power devices may safely operate or charge from a single high power source. In addition, multiple devices in a charging zone may find the power available to them regulated according to any of a variety of consumption control algorithms such as First-Come-First-Serve, Best Effort, Guaranteed Power, etc. The power consumption algorithms may be hierarchical in nature, giving priority to certain users or types of devices, or it may support any number of users by equally sharing the power that is available in the source. Power may be shared by any of the multiplexing techniques described in this disclosure.

In embodiments electromagnetic resonators may be realized or implemented using a combination of shapes, structures, and configurations. Electromagnetic resonators may include an inductive element, a distributed inductance, or a combination of inductances with a total inductance, L, and a capacitive element, a distributed capacitance, or a combination of capacitances, with a total capacitance, C. A minimal circuit model of an electromagnetic resonator comprising capacitance, inductance and resistance, is shown in FIG. 2F. The resonator may include an inductive element 238 and a capacitive element 240. Provided with initial energy, such as electric field energy stored in the capacitor 240, the system will oscillate as the capacitor discharges transferring energy into magnetic field energy stored in the inductor 238 which in turn transfers energy back into electric field energy stored in the capacitor 240. Intrinsic losses in these electromagnetic resonators include losses due to resistance in the inductive and capacitive elements and to radiation losses, and are represented by the resistor, R, 242 in FIG. 2F.

FIG. 2A shows a simplified drawing of an exemplary magnetic resonator structure. The magnetic resonator may include a loop of conductor acting as an inductive element 202 and a capacitive element 204 at the ends of the conductor loop. The inductor 202 and capacitor 204 of an electromagnetic resonator may be bulk circuit elements, or the inductance and capacitance may be distributed and may result from the way the conductors are formed, shaped, or positioned, in the structure.

For example, the inductor 202 may be realized by shaping a conductor to enclose a surface area, as shown in FIG. 2A. This type of resonator may be referred to as a capacitively-loaded loop inductor. Note that we may use the terms “loop” or “coil” to indicate generally a conducting structure (wire, tube, strip, etc.), enclosing a surface of any shape and dimension, with any number of turns. In FIG. 2A, the enclosed surface area is circular, but the surface may be any of a wide variety of other shapes and sizes and may be designed to achieve certain system performance specifications. In embodiments the inductance may be realized using inductor elements, distributed inductance, networks, arrays, series and parallel combinations of inductors and inductances, and the like. The inductance may be fixed or variable and may be used to vary impedance matching as well as resonant frequency operating conditions.

There are a variety of ways to realize the capacitance required to achieve the desired resonant frequency for a resonator structure. Capacitor plates 204 may be formed and utilized as shown in FIG. 2A, or the capacitance may be distributed and be realized between adjacent windings of a multi-loop conductor. The capacitance may be realized using capacitor elements, distributed capacitance, networks, arrays, series and parallel combinations of capacitances, and the like. The capacitance may be fixed or variable and may be used to vary impedance matching as well as resonant frequency operating conditions.

The inductive elements used in magnetic resonators may contain more than one loop and may spiral inward or outward or up or down or in some combination of directions. In general, the magnetic resonators may have a variety of shapes, sizes and number of turns and they may be composed of a variety of conducing materials. The conductor 210, for example, may be a wire, a Litz wire, a ribbon, a pipe, a trace formed from conducting ink, paint, gels, and the like or from single or multiple traces printed on a circuit board. An exemplary embodiment of a trace pattern on a substrate 208 forming inductive loops is depicted in FIG. 2B.

In embodiments the inductive elements may be formed using magnetic materials of any size, shape thickness, and the like, and of materials with a wide range of permeability and loss values. These magnetic materials may be solid blocks, they may enclose hollow volumes, they may be formed from many smaller pieces of magnetic material tiled and or stacked together, and they may be integrated with conducting sheets or enclosures made from highly conducting materials. Conductors may be wrapped around the magnetic materials to generate the magnetic field. These conductors may be wrapped around one or more than one axis of the structure. Multiple conductors may be wrapped around the magnetic materials and combined in parallel, or in series, or via a switch to form customized near-field patterns and/or to orient the dipole moment of the structure. Examples of resonators comprising magnetic material are depicted in FIGS. 2C, 2D, 2E. In FIG. 2D the resonator comprises loops of conductor 224 wrapped around a core of magnetic material 222 creating a structure that has a magnetic dipole moment 228 that is parallel to the axis of the loops of the conductor 224. The resonator may comprise multiple loops of conductor 216, 212 wrapped in orthogonal directions around the magnetic material 214 forming a resonator with a magnetic dipole moment 218, 220 that may be oriented in more than one direction as depicted in FIG. 2C, depending on how the conductors are driven.

An electromagnetic resonator may have a characteristic, natural, or resonant frequency determined by its physical properties. This resonant frequency is the frequency at which the energy stored by the resonator oscillates between that stored by the electric field, W_(E), (W_(E)=q²/2C, where q is the charge on the capacitor, C) and that stored by the magnetic field, W_(B), (W_(B)=Li²/2, where i is the current through the inductor, L) of the resonator. The frequency at which this energy is exchanged may be called the characteristic frequency, the natural frequency, or the resonant frequency of the resonator, and is given by ω,

$\omega = {{2\;\pi\; f} = {\sqrt{\frac{1}{LC}}.}}$ The resonant frequency of the resonator may be changed by tuning the inductance, L, and/or the capacitance, C, of the resonator. In one embodiment system parameters are dynamically adjustable or tunable to achieve as close as possible to optimal operating conditions. However, based on the discussion above, efficient enough energy exchange may be realized even if some system parameters are not variable or components are not capable of dynamic adjustment.

In embodiments a resonator may comprise an inductive element coupled to more than one capacitor arranged in a network of capacitors and circuit elements. In embodiments the coupled network of capacitors and circuit elements may be used to define more than one resonant frequency of the resonator. In embodiments a resonator may be resonant, or partially resonant, at more than one frequency.

In embodiments, a wireless power source may comprise of at least one resonator coil coupled to a power supply, which may be a switching amplifier, such as a class-D amplifier or a class-E amplifier or a combination thereof. In this case, the resonator coil is effectively a power load to the power supply. In embodiments, a wireless power device may comprise of at least one resonator coil coupled to a power load, which may be a switching rectifier, such as a class-D rectifier or a class-E rectifier or a combination thereof. In this case, the resonator coil is effectively a power supply for the power load, and the impedance of the load directly relates also to the work-drainage rate of the load from the resonator coil. The efficiency of power transmission between a power supply and a power load may be impacted by how closely matched the output impedance of the power source is to the input impedance of the load. Power may be delivered to the load at a maximum possible efficiency, when the input impedance of the load is equal to the complex conjugate of the internal impedance of the power supply. Designing the power supply or power load impedance to obtain a maximum power transmission efficiency is often called “impedance matching”, and may also referred to as optimizing the ratio of useful-to-lost powers in the system. Impedance matching may be performed by adding networks or sets of elements such as capacitors, inductors, transformers, switches, resistors, and the like, to form impedance matching networks between a power supply and a power load. In embodiments, mechanical adjustments and changes in element positioning may be used to achieve impedance matching. For varying loads, the impedance matching network may include variable components that are dynamically adjusted to ensure that the impedance at the power supply terminals looking towards the load and the characteristic impedance of the power supply remain substantially complex conjugates of each other, even in dynamic environments and operating scenarios.

In embodiments, impedance matching may be accomplished by tuning the duty cycle, and/or the phase, and/or the frequency of the driving signal of the power supply or by tuning a physical component within the power supply, such as a capacitor. Such a tuning mechanism may be advantageous because it may allow impedance matching between a power supply and a load without the use of a tunable impedance matching network, or with a simplified tunable impedance matching network, such as one that has fewer tunable components for example. In embodiments, tuning the duty cycle, and/or frequency, and/or phase of the driving signal to a power supply may yield a dynamic impedance matching system with an extended tuning range or precision, with higher power, voltage and/or current capabilities, with faster electronic control, with fewer external components, and the like.

In some wireless energy transfer systems the parameters of the resonator such as the inductance may be affected by environmental conditions such as surrounding objects, temperature, orientation, number and position of other resonators and the like. Changes in operating parameters of the resonators may change certain system parameters, such as the efficiency of transferred power in the wireless energy transfer. For example, high-conductivity materials located near a resonator may shift the resonant frequency of a resonator and detune it from other resonant objects. In some embodiments, a resonator feedback mechanism is employed that corrects its frequency by changing a reactive element (e.g., an inductive element or capacitive element). In order to achieve acceptable matching conditions, at least some of the system parameters may need to be dynamically adjustable or tunable. All the system parameters may be dynamically adjustable or tunable to achieve approximately the optimal operating conditions. However, efficient enough energy exchange may be realized even if all or some system parameters are not variable. In some examples, at least some of the devices may not be dynamically adjusted. In some examples, at least some of the sources may not be dynamically adjusted. In some examples, at least some of the intermediate resonators may not be dynamically adjusted. In some examples, none of the system parameters may be dynamically adjusted.

In some embodiments changes in parameters of components may be mitigated by selecting components with characteristics that change in a complimentary or opposite way or direction when subjected to differences in operating environment or operating point. In embodiments, a system may be designed with components, such as capacitors, that have an opposite dependence or parameter fluctuation due to temperature, power levels, frequency, and the like. In some embodiments, the component values as a function of temperature may be stored in a look-up table in a system microcontroller and the reading from a temperature sensor may be used in the system control feedback loop to adjust other parameters to compensate for the temperature induced component value changes.

In some embodiments the changes in parameter values of components may be compensated with active tuning circuits comprising tunable components. Circuits that monitor the operating environment and operating point of components and system may be integrated in the design. The monitoring circuits may provide the signals necessary to actively compensate for changes in parameters of components. For example, a temperature reading may be used to calculate expected changes in, or to indicate previously measured values of, capacitance of the system allowing compensation by switching in other capacitors or tuning capacitors to maintain the desired capacitance over a range of temperatures. In embodiments, the RF amplifier switching waveforms may be adjusted to compensate for component value or load changes in the system. In some embodiments the changes in parameters of components may be compensated with active cooling, heating, active environment conditioning, and the like.

The parameter measurement circuitry may measure or monitor certain power, voltage, and current, signals in the system, and processors or control circuits may adjust certain settings or operating parameters based on those measurements. In addition the magnitude and phase of voltage and current signals, and the magnitude of the power signals, throughout the system may be accessed to measure or monitor the system performance. The measured signals referred to throughout this disclosure may be any combination of port parameter signals, as well as voltage signals, current signals, power signals, temperatures signals and the like. These parameters may be measured using analog or digital techniques, they may be sampled and processed, and they may be digitized or converted using a number of known analog and digital processing techniques. In embodiments, preset values of certain measured quantities are loaded in a system controller or memory location and used in various feedback and control loops. In embodiments, any combination of measured, monitored, and/or preset signals may be used in feedback circuits or systems to control the operation of the resonators and/or the system.

Adjustment algorithms may be used to adjust the frequency, Q, and/or impedance of the magnetic resonators. The algorithms may take as inputs reference signals related to the degree of deviation from a desired operating point for the system and may output correction or control signals related to that deviation that control variable or tunable elements of the system to bring the system back towards the desired operating point or points. The reference signals for the magnetic resonators may be acquired while the resonators are exchanging power in a wireless power transmission system, or they may be switched out of the circuit during system operation. Corrections to the system may be applied or performed continuously, periodically, upon a threshold crossing, digitally, using analog methods, and the like.

In embodiments, lossy extraneous materials and objects may introduce potential reductions in efficiencies by absorbing the magnetic and/or electric energy of the resonators of the wireless power transmission system. Those impacts may be mitigated in various embodiments by positioning resonators to minimize the effects of the lossy extraneous materials and objects and by placing structural field shaping elements (e.g., conductive structures, plates and sheets, magnetic material structures, plates and sheets, and combinations thereof) to minimize their effect.

One way to reduce the impact of lossy materials on a resonator is to use high-conductivity materials, magnetic materials, or combinations thereof to shape the resonator fields such that they avoid the lossy objects. In an exemplary embodiment, a layered structure of high-conductivity material and magnetic material may tailor, shape, direct, reorient, etc. the resonator's electromagnetic fields so that they avoid lossy objects in their vicinity by deflecting the fields. FIG. 2D shows a top view of a resonator with a sheet of conductor 226 below the magnetic material that may used to tailor the fields of the resonator so that they avoid lossy objects that may be below the sheet of conductor 226. The layer or sheet of good 226 conductor may comprise any high conductivity materials such as copper, silver, aluminum, as may be most appropriate for a given application. In certain embodiments, the layer or sheet of good conductor is thicker than the skin depth of the conductor at the resonator operating frequency. The conductor sheet may be preferably larger than the size of the resonator, extending beyond the physical extent of the resonator.

In environments and systems where the amount of power being transmitted could present a safety hazard to a person or animal that may intrude into the active field volume, safety measures may be included in the system. In embodiments where power levels require particularized safety measures, the packaging, structure, materials, and the like of the resonators may be designed to provide a spacing or “keep away” zone from the conducting loops in the magnetic resonator. To provide further protection, high-Q resonators and power and control circuitry may be located in enclosures that confine high voltages or currents to within the enclosure, that protect the resonators and electrical components from weather, moisture, sand, dust, and other external elements, as well as from impacts, vibrations, scrapes, explosions, and other types of mechanical shock. Such enclosures call for attention to various factors such as thermal dissipation to maintain an acceptable operating temperature range for the electrical components and the resonator. In embodiments, enclosure may be constructed of non-lossy materials such as composites, plastics, wood, concrete, and the like and may be used to provide a minimum distance from lossy objects to the resonator components. A minimum separation distance from lossy objects or environments which may include metal objects, salt water, oil and the like, may improve the efficiency of wireless energy transfer. In embodiments, a “keep away” zone may be used to increase the perturbed Q of a resonator or system of resonators. In embodiments a minimum separation distance may provide for a more reliable or more constant operating parameters of the resonators.

In embodiments, resonators and their respective sensor and control circuitry may have various levels of integration with other electronic and control systems and subsystems. In some embodiments the power and control circuitry and the device resonators are completely separate modules or enclosures with minimal integration to existing systems, providing a power output and a control and diagnostics interface. In some embodiments a device is configured to house a resonator and circuit assembly in a cavity inside the enclosure, or integrated into the housing or enclosure of the device.

Example Resonator Circuitry

FIGS. 3 and 4 show high level block diagrams depicting power generation, monitoring, and control components for exemplary sources of a wireless energy transfer system. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a source comprising a half-bridge switching power amplifier and some of the associated measurement, tuning, and control circuitry. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of a source comprising a full-bridge switching amplifier and some of the associated measurement, tuning, and control circuitry.

The half bridge system topology depicted in FIG. 3 may comprise a processing unit that executes a control algorithm 328. The processing unit executing a control algorithm 328 may be a microcontroller, an application specific circuit, a field programmable gate array, a processor, a digital signal processor, and the like. The processing unit may be a single device or it may be a network of devices. The control algorithm may run on any portion of the processing unit. The algorithm may be customized for certain applications and may comprise a combination of analog and digital circuits and signals. The master algorithm may measure and adjust voltage signals and levels, current signals and levels, signal phases, digital count settings, and the like.

The system may comprise an optional source/device and/or source/other resonator communication controller 332 coupled to wireless communication circuitry 312. The optional source/device and/or source/other resonator communication controller 332 may be part of the same processing unit that executes the master control algorithm, it may a part or a circuit within a microcontroller 302, it may be external to the wireless power transmission modules, it may be substantially similar to communication controllers used in wire powered or battery powered applications but adapted to include some new or different functionality to enhance or support wireless power transmission.

The system may comprise a PWM generator 306 coupled to at least two transistor gate drivers 334 and may be controlled by the control algorithm. The two transistor gate drivers 334 may be coupled directly or via gate drive transformers to two power transistors 336 that drive the source resonator coil 344 through impedance matching network components 342. The power transistors 336 may be coupled and powered with an adjustable DC supply 304 and the adjustable DC supply 304 may be controlled by a variable bus voltage, Vbus. The Vbus controller may be controlled by the control algorithm 328 and may be part of, or integrated into, a microcontroller 302 or other integrated circuits. The Vbus controller 326 may control the voltage output of an adjustable DC supply 304 which may be used to control power output of the amplifier and power delivered to the resonator coil 344.

The system may comprise sensing and measurement circuitry including signal filtering and buffering circuits 318, 320 that may shape, modify, filter, process, buffer, and the like, signals prior to their input to processors and/or converters such as analog to digital converters (ADC) 314, 316, for example. The processors and converters such as ADCs 314, 316 may be integrated into a microcontroller 302 or may be separate circuits that may be coupled to a processing core 330. Based on measured signals, the control algorithm 328 may generate, limit, initiate, extinguish, control, adjust, or modify the operation of any of the PWM generator 306, the communication controller 332, the Vbus control 326, the source impedance matching controller 338, the filter/buffering elements, 318, 320, the converters, 314, 316, the resonator coil 344, and may be part of, or integrated into, a microcontroller 302 or a separate circuit. The impedance matching networks 342 and resonator coils 344 may include electrically controllable, variable, or tunable components such as capacitors, switches, inductors, and the like, as described herein, and these components may have their component values or operating points adjusted according to signals received from the source impedance matching controller 338. Components may be tuned to adjust the operation and characteristics of the resonator including the power delivered to and by the resonator, the resonant frequency of the resonator, the impedance of the resonator, the Q of the resonator, and any other coupled systems, and the like. The resonator may be any type or structure resonator described herein including a capacitively loaded loop resonator, a planer resonator comprising a magnetic material or any combination thereof.

The full bridge system topology depicted in FIG. 4 may comprise a processing unit that executes a master control algorithm 328. The processing unit executing the control algorithm 328 may be a microcontroller, an application specific circuit, a field programmable gate array, a processor, a digital signal processor, and the like. The system may comprise a source/device and/or source/other resonator communication controller 332 coupled to wireless communication circuitry 312. The source/device and/or source/other resonator communication controller 332 may be part of the same processing unit that executes that master control algorithm, it may a part or a circuit within a microcontroller 302, it may be external to the wireless power transmission modules, it may be substantially similar to communication controllers used in wire powered or battery powered applications but adapted to include some new or different functionality to enhance or support wireless power transmission.

The system may comprise a PWM generator 410 with at least two outputs coupled to at least four transistor gate drivers 334 that may be controlled by signals generated in a master control algorithm. The four transistor gate drivers 334 may be coupled to four power transistors 336 directly or via gate drive transformers that may drive the source resonator coil 344 through impedance matching networks 342. The power transistors 336 may be coupled and powered with an adjustable DC supply 304 and the adjustable DC supply 304 may be controlled by a Vbus controller 326 which may be controlled by a master control algorithm. The Vbus controller 326 may control the voltage output of the adjustable DC supply 304 which may be used to control power output of the amplifier and power delivered to the resonator coil 344.

The system may comprise sensing and measurement circuitry including signal filtering and buffering circuits 318, 320 and differential/single ended conversion circuitry 402, 404 that may shape, modify, filter, process, buffer, and the like, signals prior to being input to processors and/or converters such as analog to digital converters (ADC) 314, 316. The processors and/or converters such as ADC 314, 316 may be integrated into a microcontroller 302 or may be separate circuits that may be coupled to a processing core 330. Based on measured signals, the master control algorithm may generate, limit, initiate, extinguish, control, adjust, or modify the operation of any of the PWM generator 410, the communication controller 332, the Vbus controller 326, the source impedance matching controller 338, the filter/buffering elements, 318, 320, differential/single ended conversion circuitry 402, 404, the converters, 314, 316, the resonator coil 344, and may be part of or integrated into a microcontroller 302 or a separate circuit.

Impedance matching networks 342 and resonator coils 344 may comprise electrically controllable, variable, or tunable components such as capacitors, switches, inductors, and the like, as described herein, and these components may have their component values or operating points adjusted according to signals received from the source impedance matching controller 338. Components may be tuned to enable tuning of the operation and characteristics of the resonator including the power delivered to and by the resonator, the resonant frequency of the resonator, the impedance of the resonator, the Q of the resonator, and any other coupled systems, and the like. The resonator may be any type or structure resonator described herein including a capacitively loaded loop resonator, a planar resonator comprising a magnetic material or any combination thereof.

Impedance matching networks may comprise fixed value components such as capacitors, inductors, and networks of components as described herein. Parts of the impedance matching networks, A, B and C, may comprise inductors, capacitors, transformers, and series and parallel combinations of such components, as described herein. In some embodiments, parts of the impedance matching networks A, B, and C, may be empty (short-circuited). In some embodiments, part B comprises a series combination of an inductor and a capacitor, and part C is empty.

The full bridge topology may allow operation at higher output power levels using the same DC bus voltage as an equivalent half bridge amplifier. The half bridge exemplary topology of FIG. 3 may provide a single-ended drive signal, while the exemplary full bridge topology of FIG. 4 may provide a differential drive to the source resonator 308. The impedance matching topologies and components and the resonator structure may be different for the two systems, as discussed herein.

The exemplary systems depicted in FIGS. 3 and 4 may further include fault detection circuitry 340 that may be used to trigger the shutdown of the microcontroller in the source amplifier or to change or interrupt the operation of the amplifier. This protection circuitry may comprise a high speed comparator or comparators to monitor the amplifier return current, the amplifier bus voltage (Vbus) from the DC supply 304, the voltage across the source resonator 308 and/or the optional tuning board, or any other voltage or current signals that may cause damage to components in the system or may yield undesirable operating conditions. Preferred embodiments may depend on the potentially undesirable operating modes associated with different applications. In some embodiments, protection circuitry may not be implemented or circuits may not be populated. In some embodiments, system and component protection may be implemented as part of a master control algorithm and other system monitoring and control circuits. In embodiments, dedicated fault circuitry 340 may include an output (not shown) coupled to a master control algorithm 328 that may trigger a system shutdown, a reduction of the output power (e.g. reduction of Vbus), a change to the PWM generator, a change in the operating frequency, a change to a tuning element, or any other reasonable action that may be implemented by the control algorithm 328 to adjust the operating point mode, improve system performance, and/or provide protection.

As described herein, sources in wireless power transfer systems may use a measurement of the input impedance of the impedance matching network 342 driving source resonator coil 344 as an error or control signal for a system control loop that may be part of the master control algorithm. In exemplary embodiments, variations in any combination of three parameters may be used to tune the wireless power source to compensate for changes in environmental conditions, for changes in coupling, for changes in device power demand, for changes in module, circuit, component or subsystem performance, for an increase or decrease in the number or sources, devices, or repeaters in the system, for user initiated changes, and the like. In exemplary embodiments, changes to the amplifier duty cycle, to the component values of the variable electrical components such as variable capacitors and inductors, and to the DC bus voltage may be used to change the operating point or operating range of the wireless source and improve some system operating value. The specifics of the control algorithms employed for different applications may vary depending on the desired system performance and behavior.

Impedance measurement circuitry such as described herein, and shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, may be implemented using two-channel simultaneous sampling ADCs and these ADCs may be integrated into a microcontroller chip or may be part of a separate circuit. Simultaneously sampling of the voltage and current signals at the input to a source resonator's impedance matching network and/or the source resonator, may yield the phase and magnitude information of the current and voltage signals and may be processed using known signal processing techniques to yield complex impedance parameters. In some embodiments, monitoring only the voltage signals or only the current signals may be sufficient.

The impedance measurements described herein may use direct sampling methods which may be relatively simpler than some other known sampling methods. In embodiments, measured voltage and current signals may be conditioned, filtered and scaled by filtering/buffering circuitry before being input to ADCs. In embodiments, the filter/buffering circuitry may be adjustable to work at a variety of signal levels and frequencies, and circuit parameters such as filter shapes and widths may be adjusted manually, electronically, automatically, in response to a control signal, by the master control algorithm, and the like. Exemplary embodiments of filter/buffering circuits are shown in FIGS. 3, 4, and 5.

FIG. 5 shows more detailed views of exemplary circuit components that may be used in filter/buffering circuitry. In embodiments, and depending on the types of ADCs used in the system designs, single-ended amplifier topologies may reduce the complexity of the analog signal measurement paths used to characterize system, subsystem, module and/or component performance by eliminating the need for hardware to convert from differential to single-ended signal formats. In other implementations, differential signal formats may be preferable. The implementations shown in FIG. 5 are exemplary, and should not be construed to be the only possible way to implement the functionality described herein. Rather it should be understood that the analog signal path may employ components with different input requirements and hence may have different signal path architectures.

In both the single ended and differential amplifier topologies, the input current to the impedance matching networks 342 driving the resonator coils 344 may be obtained by measuring the voltage across a capacitor 324, or via a current sensor of some type. For the exemplary single-ended amplifier topology in FIG. 3, the current may be sensed on the ground return path from the impedance matching network 342. For the exemplary differential power amplifier depicted in FIG. 4, the input current to the impedance matching networks 342 driving the resonator coils 344 may be measured using a differential amplifier across the terminals of a capacitor 324 or via a current sensor of some type. In the differential topology of FIG. 4, the capacitor 324 may be duplicated at the negative output terminal of the source power amplifier.

In both topologies, after single ended signals representing the input voltage and current to the source resonator and impedance matching network are obtained, the signals may be filtered 502 to obtain the desired portions of the signal waveforms. In embodiments, the signals may be filtered to obtain the fundamental component of the signals. In embodiments, the type of filtering performed, such as low pass, bandpass, notch, and the like, as well as the filter topology used, such as elliptical, Chebyshev, Butterworth, and the like, may depend on the specific requirements of the system. In some embodiments, no filtering will be required.

The voltage and current signals may be amplified by an optional amplifier 504. The gain of the optional amplifier 504 may be fixed or variable. The gain of the amplifier may be controlled manually, electronically, automatically, in response to a control signal, and the like. The gain of the amplifier may be adjusted in a feedback loop, in response to a control algorithm, by the master control algorithm, and the like. In embodiments, required performance specifications for the amplifier may depend on signal strength and desired measurement accuracy, and may be different for different application scenarios and control algorithms.

The measured analog signals may have a DC offset added to them, 506, which may be required to bring the signals into the input voltage range of the ADC which for some systems may be 0 to 3.3V. In some systems this stage may not be required, depending on the specifications of the particular ADC used.

As described above, the efficiency of power transmission between a power generator and a power load may be impacted by how closely matched the output impedance of the generator is to the input impedance of the load. In an exemplary system as shown in FIG. 6A, power may be delivered to the load at a maximum possible efficiency, when the input impedance of the load 604 is equal to the complex conjugate of the internal impedance of the power generator or the power amplifier 602. Designing the generator or load impedance to obtain a high and/or maximum power transmission efficiency may be called “impedance matching”. Impedance matching may be performed by inserting appropriate networks or sets of elements such as capacitors, resistors, inductors, transformers, switches and the like, to form an impedance matching network 606, between a power generator 602 and a power load 604 as shown in FIG. 6B. In other embodiments, mechanical adjustments and changes in element positioning may be used to achieve impedance matching. As described above for varying loads, the impedance matching network 606 may include variable components that are dynamically adjusted to ensure that the impedance at the generator terminals looking towards the load and the characteristic impedance of the generator remain substantially complex conjugates of each other, even in dynamic environments and operating scenarios. In embodiments, dynamic impedance matching may be accomplished by tuning the duty cycle, and/or the phase, and/or the frequency of the driving signal of the power generator or by tuning a physical component within the power generator, such as a capacitor, as depicted in FIG. 6C. Such a tuning mechanism may be advantageous because it may allow impedance matching between a power generator 608 and a load without the use of a tunable impedance matching network, or with a simplified tunable impedance matching network 606, such as one that has fewer tunable components for example. In embodiments, tuning the duty cycle, and/or frequency, and/or phase of the driving signal to a power generator may yield a dynamic impedance matching system with an extended tuning range or precision, with higher power, voltage and/or current capabilities, with faster electronic control, with fewer external components, and the like. The impedance matching methods, architectures, algorithms, protocols, circuits, measurements, controls, and the like, described below, may be useful in systems where power generators drive high-Q magnetic resonators and in high-Q wireless power transmission systems as described herein. In wireless power transfer systems a power generator may be a power amplifier driving a resonator, sometimes referred to as a source resonator, which may be a load to the power amplifier. In wireless power applications, it may be preferable to control the impedance matching between a power amplifier and a resonator load to control the efficiency of the power delivery from the power amplifier to the resonator. The impedance matching may be accomplished, or accomplished in part, by tuning or adjusting the duty cycle, and/or the phase, and/or the frequency of the driving signal of the power amplifier that drives the resonator.

Efficiency of Switching Amplifiers

Switching amplifiers, such as class D, E, F amplifiers, and the like or any combinations thereof, deliver power to a load at a maximum efficiency when almost no power is dissipated on the switching elements of the amplifier. This operating condition may be accomplished by designing the system so that the switching operations which are most critical (namely those that are most likely to lead to switching losses) are done when either or both of the voltage across the switching element and the current through the switching element are nearly zero. These conditions may be referred to as Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) and Zero Current Switching (ZCS) conditions respectively. When an amplifier operates at ZVS and/or ZCS either the voltage across the switching element or the current through the switching element is zero and thus no power can be dissipated in the switch. Since a switching amplifier may convert DC (or very low frequency AC) power to AC power at a specific frequency or range of frequencies, a filter may be introduced before the load to prevent unwanted harmonics that may be generated by the switching process from reaching the load and being dissipated there. In embodiments, a switching amplifier may be designed to operate at maximum efficiency of power conversion, when connected to a resonant load, with a quality factor (say Q>5), and of a specific impedance Z*_(o)=R_(o)+jX₀, which leads to simultaneous ZVS and ZCS. We define Z_(o)=R_(o)−jX₀ as the characteristic impedance of the amplifier, so that achieving maximum power transmission efficiency is equivalent to impedance matching the resonant load to the characteristic impedance of the amplifier.

In a switching amplifier, the switching frequency of the switching elements, f_(switch), wherein f_(switch)=ω/2π and the duty cycle, dc, of the ON switch-state duration of the switching elements may be the same for all switching elements of the amplifier. In this specification, we will use the term “class D” to denote both class D and class DE amplifiers, that is, switching amplifiers with dc<=50%.

The value of the characteristic impedance of the amplifier may depend on the operating frequency, the amplifier topology, and the switching sequence of the switching elements. In some embodiments, the switching amplifier may be a half-bridge topology and, in some embodiments, a full-bridge topology. In some embodiments, the switching amplifier may be class D and, in some embodiments, class E. In any of the above embodiments, assuming the elements of the bridge are symmetric, the characteristic impedance of the switching amplifier has the form R _(o) =F _(R)(dc)/ωC _(a) ,X _(o) =F _(X)(dc)/ωC _(a),  (1) where dc is the duty cycle of ON switch-state of the switching elements, the functions F_(R) (dc) and F_(X)(dc) are plotted in FIG. 7 (both for class D and E), ω is the frequency at which the switching elements are switched, and C_(a)=n_(a)C_(switc)

where C_(switc)

is the capacitance across each switch, including both the transistor output capacitance and also possible external capacitors placed in parallel with the switch, while n_(a)=1 for a full bridge and n_(a)=2 for a half bridge. For class D, one can also write the analytical expressions F _(R)(dc)=sin² u/π,F _(X)(dc)=(u−sin u*cos u)/π,  (2) where u=π(1−2*dc), indicating that the characteristic impedance level of a class D amplifier decreases as the duty cycle, dc, increases towards 50%. For a class D amplifier operation with dc=50%, achieving ZVS and ZCS is possible only when the switching elements have practically no output capacitance (C_(a)=0) and the load is exactly on resonance (X_(o)=0), while R_(o) can be arbitrary.

Impedance Matching Networks

In applications, the driven load may have impedance that is very different from the characteristic impedance of the external driving circuit, to which it is connected. Furthermore, the driven load may not be a resonant network. An Impedance Matching Network (IMN) is a circuit network that may be connected before a load as in FIG. 6B, in order to regulate the impedance that is seen at the input of the network consisting of the IMN circuit and the load. An IMN circuit may typically achieve this regulation by creating a resonance close to the driving frequency. Since such an IMN circuit accomplishes all conditions needed to maximize the power transmission efficiency from the generator to the load (resonance and impedance matching—ZVS and ZCS for a switching amplifier), in embodiments, an IMN circuit may be used between the driving circuit and the load.

For an arrangement shown in FIG. 6B, let the input impedance of the network consisting of the Impedance Matching Network (IMN) circuit and the load (denoted together from now on as IMN+load) be Z₁=R₁(ω)+jX_(l) (ω). The impedance matching conditions of this network to the external circuit with characteristic impedance Z_(o)=R_(o)−jX_(o) are then R_(l)(ω)=R_(o), X_(l)(ω)=X_(o).

Methods for Tunable Impedance Matching of a Variable Load

In embodiments where the load may be variable, impedance matching between the load and the external driving circuit, such as a linear or switching power amplifier, may be achieved by using adjustable/tunable components in the IMN circuit that may be adjusted to match the varying load to the fixed characteristic impedance Z_(o) of the external circuit (FIG. 6B). To match both the real and imaginary parts of the impedance two tunable/variable elements in the IMN circuit may be needed.

In embodiments, the load may be inductive (such as a resonator coil) with impedance R+jωL, so the two tunable elements in the IMN circuit may be two tunable capacitance networks or one tunable capacitance network and one tunable inductance network or one tunable capacitance network and one tunable mutual inductance network.

In embodiments where the load may be variable, the impedance matching between the load and the driving circuit, such as a linear or switching power amplifier, may be achieved by using adjustable/tunable components or parameters in the amplifier circuit that may be adjusted to match the characteristic impedance Z_(o) of the amplifier to the varying (due to load variations) input impedance of the network consisting of the IMN circuit and the load (IMN+load), where the IMN circuit may also be tunable (FIG. 6C). To match both the real and imaginary parts of the impedance, a total of two tunable/variable elements or parameters in the amplifier and the IMN circuit may be needed. The disclosed impedance matching method can reduce the required number of tunable/variable elements in the IMN circuit or even completely eliminate the requirement for tunable/variable elements in the IMN circuit. In some examples, one tunable element in the power amplifier and one tunable element in the IMN circuit may be used. In some examples, two tunable elements in the power amplifier and no tunable element in the IMN circuit may be used.

In embodiments, the tunable elements or parameters in the power amplifier may be the frequency, amplitude, phase, waveform, duty cycle and the like of the drive signals applied to transistors, switches, diodes and the like.

In embodiments, the power amplifier with tunable characteristic impedance may be a tunable switching amplifier of class D, E, F or any combinations thereof. Combining Equations (1) and (2), the impedance matching conditions for this network are R _(l)(ω)=F _(R)(dc)/ωC _(a) ,X _(l)(ω)=F _(X)(dc)/ωC _(a)  (3).

In some examples of a tunable switching amplifier, one tunable element may be the capacitance C_(a), which may be tuned by tuning the external capacitors placed in parallel with the switching elements.

In some examples of a tunable switching amplifier, one tunable element may be the duty cycle dc of the ON switch-state of the switching elements of the amplifier. Adjusting the duty cycle, dc, via Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) has been used in switching amplifiers to achieve output power control. In this specification, we disclose that PWM may also be used to achieve impedance matching, namely to satisfy Eqs. (3), and thus maximize the amplifier efficiency.

In some examples of a tunable switching amplifier one tunable element may be the switching frequency, which is also the driving frequency of the IMN+load network and may be designed to be substantially close to the resonant frequency of the IMN+load network. Tuning the switching frequency may change the characteristic impedance of the amplifier and the impedance of the IMN+load network. The switching frequency of the amplifier may be tuned appropriately together with one more tunable parameters, so that Eqs. (3) are satisfied.

A benefit of tuning the duty cycle and/or the driving frequency of the amplifier for dynamic impedance matching is that these parameters can be tuned electronically, quickly, and over a broad range. In contrast, for example, a tunable capacitor that can sustain a large voltage and has a large enough tunable range and quality factor may be expensive, slow or unavailable for with the necessary component specifications

Examples of Methods for Tunable Impedance Matching of a Variable Load

A simplified circuit diagram showing the circuit level structure of a class D power amplifier 802, impedance matching network 804 and an inductive load 806 is shown in FIG. 8. The diagram shows the basic components of the system with the switching amplifier 804 comprising a power source 810, switching elements 808, and capacitors. The impedance matching network 804 comprising inductors and capacitors, and the load 806 modeled as an inductor and a resistor.

An exemplary embodiment of this inventive tuning scheme comprises a half-bridge class-D amplifier operating at switching frequency f and driving a low-loss inductive element R+jωL via an IMN, as shown in FIG. 8.

In some embodiments L′ may be tunable. L′ may be tuned by a variable tapping point on the inductor or by connecting a tunable capacitor in series or in parallel to the inductor. In some embodiments C_(a) may be tunable. For the half bridge topology, C_(a) may be tuned by varying either one or both capacitors C_(switc)

, as only the parallel sum of these capacitors matters for the amplifier operation. For the full bridge topology, C_(a) may be tuned by varying either one, two, three or all capacitors C_(switc)

, as only their combination (series sum of the two parallel sums associated with the two halves of the bridge) matters for the amplifier operation.

In some embodiments of tunable impedance matching, two of the components of the IMN may be tunable. In some embodiments, L′ and C₂ may be tuned. Then, FIG. 9 shows the values of the two tunable components needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R and L of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier, for f=250 kHz, dc=40%, C_(a)=640 pF and C₁=10 nF. Since the IMN always adjusts to the fixed characteristic impedance of the amplifier, the output power is always constant as the inductive element is varying.

In some embodiments of tunable impedance matching, elements in the switching amplifier may also be tunable. In some embodiments the capacitance C_(a) along with the IMN capacitor C₂ may be tuned. Then, FIG. 10 shows the values of the two tunable components needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R and L of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier for f=250 kHz, dc=40%, C₁=10 nF and ωL′=1000Ω. It can be inferred from FIG. 10 that C₂ needs to be tuned mainly in response to variations in L and that the output power decreases as R increases.

In some embodiments of tunable impedance matching, the duty cycle dc along with the IMN capacitor C₂ may be tuned. Then, FIG. 11 shows the values of the two tunable parameters needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R and L of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier for f=250 kHz, C_(a)=640 pF, C₁=10 nF and ωL′=1000Ω. It can be inferred from FIG. 11 that C₂ needs to be tuned mainly in response to variations in L and that the output power decreases as R increases.

In some embodiments of tunable impedance matching, the capacitance C_(a) along with the IMN inductor L′ may be tuned. Then, FIG. 11A shows the values of the two tunable components needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier for f=250 kHz, dc=40%, C₁=10 nF and C₂=7.5 nF. It can be inferred from FIG. 11A that the output power decreases as R increases.

In some embodiments of tunable impedance matching, the duty cycle dc along with the IMN inductor L′ may be tuned. Then, FIG. 11B shows the values of the two tunable parameters needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier for f=250 kHz, C_(a)=640 pF, C₁=10 nF and C₂=7.5 nF as functions of the varying R of the inductive element. It can be inferred from FIG. 11B that the output power decreases as R increases.

In some embodiments of tunable impedance matching, only elements in the switching amplifier may be tunable with no tunable elements in the IMN. In some embodiments the duty cycle dc along with the capacitance C_(a) may be tuned. Then, FIG. 11C, shows the values of the two tunable parameters needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier for f=250 kHz, C₁=10 nF, C₂=7.5 nF and ωL′=1000Ω. It can be inferred from FIG. 11C that the output power is a non-monotonic function of R. These embodiments may be able to achieve dynamic impedance matching when variations in L (and thus the resonant frequency) are modest.

In some embodiments, dynamic impedance matching with fixed elements inside the IMN, also when L is varying greatly as explained earlier, may be achieved by varying the driving frequency of the external frequency f (e.g. the switching frequency of a switching amplifier) so that it follows the varying resonant frequency of the resonator. Using the switching frequency f and the switch duty cycle dc as the two variable parameters, full impedance matching can be achieved as R and L are varying without the need of any variable components. Then, FIG. 12 shows the values of the two tunable parameters needed to achieve impedance matching as functions of the varying R and L of the inductive element, and the associated variation of the output power (at given DC bus voltage) of the amplifier for C_(a)=640 pF, C_(i)=10 nF, C₂=7.5 nF and L′=637 μH. It can be inferred from FIG. 12 that the frequency f needs to be tuned mainly in response to variations in L, as explained earlier.

Tunable Impedance Matching for Systems of Wireless Power Transmission

In applications of wireless power transfer the low-loss inductive element may be the coil of a source resonator coupled to one or more device resonators or other resonators, such as repeater resonators, for example. The impedance of the inductive element R+jωL may include the reflected impedances of the other resonators on the coil of the source resonator. Variations of R and L of the inductive element may occur due to external perturbations in the vicinity of the source resonator and/or the other resonators or thermal drift of components. Variations of R and L of the inductive element may also occur during normal use of the wireless power transmission system due to relative motion of the devices and other resonators with respect to the source. The relative motion of these devices and other resonators with respect to the source, or relative motion or position of other sources, may lead to varying coupling (and thus varying reflected impedances) of the devices to the source. Furthermore, variations of R and L of the inductive element may also occur during normal use of the wireless power transmission system due to changes within the other coupled resonators, such as changes in the power draw of their loads. All the methods and embodiments disclosed so far apply also to this case in order to achieve dynamic impedance matching of this inductive element to the external circuit driving it.

To demonstrate the presently disclosed dynamic impedance matching methods for a wireless power transmission system, consider a source resonator including a low-loss source coil, which is inductively coupled to the device coil of a device resonator driving a resistive load.

In some embodiments, dynamic impedance matching may be achieved at the source circuit. In some embodiments, dynamic impedance matching may also be achieved at the device circuit. When full impedance matching is obtained (both at the source and the device), the effective resistance of the source inductive element (namely the resistance of the source coil R_(s) plus the reflected impedance from the device) is R=R_(s)√{square root over (1+U_(sd) ²)}. (Similarly the effective resistance of the device inductive element is R_(d)√{square root over (1+U_(sd) ²)}, where R_(d) is the resistance of the device coil.) Dynamic variation of the mutual inductance between the coils due to motion results in a dynamic variation of U_(sd)=ωM_(sd)/√{square root over (R_(s)R_(d))}. Therefore, when both source and device are dynamically tuned, the variation of mutual inductance is seen from the source circuit side as a variation in the source inductive element resistance R. Note that in this type of variation, the resonant frequencies of the resonators may not change substantially, since L may not be changing. Therefore, all the methods and examples presented for dynamic impedance matching may be used for the source circuit of the wireless power transmission system.

Note that, since the resistance R represents both the source coil and the reflected impedances of the device coils to the source coil, in FIGS. 9-12, as R increases due to the increasing U, the associated wireless power transmission efficiency increases. In some embodiments, an approximately constant power may be required at the load driven by the device circuitry. To achieve a constant level of power transmitted to the device, the required output power of the source circuit may need to decrease as U increases. If dynamic impedance matching is achieved via tuning some of the amplifier parameters, the output power of the amplifier may vary accordingly. In some embodiments, the automatic variation of the output power is preferred to be monotonically decreasing with R, so that it matches the constant device power requirement. In embodiments where the output power level is accomplished by adjusting the DC driving voltage of the power generator, using an impedance matching set of tunable parameters which leads to monotonically decreasing output power vs. R will imply that constant power can be kept at the power load in the device with only a moderate adjustment of the DC driving voltage. In embodiments, where the “knob” to adjust the output power level is the duty cycle dc or the phase of a switching amplifier or a component inside an Impedance Matching Network, using an impedance matching set of tunable parameters which leads to monotonically decreasing output power vs. R will imply that constant power can be kept at the power load in the device with only a moderate adjustment of this power “knob”.

In the examples of FIGS. 9-12, if R_(s)=0.19Ω, then the range R=0.2−2Ω corresponds approximately to U_(sd)=0.3−10.5. For these values, in FIG. 14, we show with dashed lines the output power (normalized to DC voltage squared) required to keep a constant power level at the load, when both source and device are dynamically impedance matched. The similar trend between the solid and dashed lines explains why a set of tunable parameters with such a variation of output power may be preferable.

In some embodiments, dynamic impedance matching may be achieved at the source circuit, but impedance matching may not be achieved or may only partially be achieved at the device circuit. As the mutual inductance between the source and device coils varies, the varying reflected impedance of the device to the source may result in a variation of both the effective resistance R and the effective inductance L of the source inductive element. The methods presented so far for dynamic impedance matching are applicable and can be used for the tunable source circuit of the wireless power transmission system.

As an example, consider the circuit of FIG. 14, where f=250 kHz, C_(a)=640 pF, R_(s)=0.19Ω, L_(s)=100 μH, C_(1s)=10 nF, ωL′_(s)=1000Ω, R_(d)=0.3Ω, L_(d)=40 μH, C_(1d)=87.5 nF, C_(2d)=13 nF, ωL′_(d)=400Ω and Z₁=50Ω, where s and d denote the source and device resonators respectively and the system is matched at U_(sd)=3. Tuning the duty cycle dc of the switching amplifier and the capacitor C_(2s) may be used to dynamically impedance match the source, as the non-tunable device is moving relatively to the source changing the mutual inductance M between the source and the device. In FIG. 14, we show the required values of the tunable parameters along with the output power per DC voltage of the amplifier. The dashed line again indicates the output power of the amplifier that would be needed so that the power at the load is a constant value.

In some embodiments, tuning the driving frequency f of the source driving circuit may still be used to achieve dynamic impedance matching at the source for a system of wireless power transmission between the source and one or more devices. As explained earlier, this method enables full dynamic impedance matching of the source, even when there are variations in the source inductance L_(s) and thus the source resonant frequency. For efficient power transmission from the source to the devices, the device resonant frequencies must be tuned to follow the variations of the matched driving and source-resonant frequencies. Tuning a device capacitance (for example, in the embodiment of FIG. 13 C_(1d) or C_(2d)) may be necessary, when there are variations in the resonant frequency of either the source or the device resonators. In fact, in a wireless power transfer system with multiple sources and devices, tuning the driving frequency alleviates the need to tune only one source-object resonant frequency, however, all the rest of the objects may need a mechanism (such as a tunable capacitance) to tune their resonant frequencies to match the driving frequency.

Resonator Thermal Management

In wireless energy transfer systems, some portion of the energy lost during the wireless transfer process is dissipated as heat. Energy may be dissipated in the resonator components themselves. For example, even high-Q conductors and components have some loss or resistance, and these conductors and components may heat up when electric currents and/or electromagnetic fields flow through them. Energy may be dissipated in materials and objects around a resonator. For example, eddy currents dissipated in imperfect conductors or dielectrics surrounding or near-by the resonator may heat up those objects. In addition to affecting the material properties of those objects, this heat may be transferred through conductive, radiative, or convective processes to the resonator components. Any of these heating effects may affect the resonator Q, impedance, frequency, etc., and therefore the performance of the wireless energy transfer system.

In a resonator comprising a block or core of magnetic material, heat may be generated in the magnetic material due to hysteresis losses and to resistive losses resulting from induced eddy currents. Both effects depend on the magnetic flux density in the material, and both can create significant amounts of heat, especially in regions where the flux density or eddy currents may be concentrated or localized. In addition to the flux density, the frequency of the oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic material composition and losses, and the ambient or operating temperature of the magnetic material may all impact how hysteresis and resistive losses heat the material.

In embodiments, the properties of the magnetic material such as the type of material, the dimensions of the block, and the like, and the magnetic field parameters may be chosen for specific operating power levels and environments to minimize heating of the magnetic material. In some embodiments, changes, cracks, or imperfections in a block of magnetic material may increase the losses and heating of the magnetic material in wireless power transmission applications.

For magnetic blocks with imperfections, or that are comprised of smaller size tiles or pieces of magnetic material arranged into a larger unit, the losses in the block may be uneven and may be concentrated in regions where there are inhomogeneities or relatively narrow gaps between adjacent tiles or pieces of magnetic material. For example, if an irregular gap exists in a magnetic block of material, then the effective reluctance of various magnetic flux paths through the material may be substantially irregular and the magnetic field may be more concentrated in portions of the block where the magnetic reluctance is lowest. In some cases, the effective reluctance may be lowest where the gap between tiles or pieces is narrowest or where the density of imperfections is lowest. Because the magnetic material guides the magnetic field, the magnetic flux density may not be substantially uniform across the block, but may be concentrated in regions offering relatively lower reluctance. Irregular concentrations of the magnetic field within a block of magnetic material may not be desirable because they may result in uneven losses and heat dissipation in the material.

For example, consider a magnetic resonator comprising a conductor 1506 wrapped around a block of magnetic material composed of two individual tiles 1502, 1504 of magnetic material joined such that they form a seam 1508 that is perpendicular to the axis of the conductor 1506 loops as depicted in FIG. 15. An irregular gap in the seam 1508 between the tiles of magnetic material 1502, 1504 may force the magnetic field 1512 (represented schematically by the dashed magnetic field lines) in the resonator to concentrate in a sub region 1510 of the cross section of the magnetic material. Since the magnetic field will follow the path of least reluctance, a path including an air gap between two pieces of magnetic material may create an effectively higher reluctance path than one that traverses the width of the magnetic material at a point where the pieces of magnetic materials touch or have a smaller air gap. The magnetic flux density may therefore preferentially flow through a relatively small cross area of the magnetic material resulting in a high concentration of magnetic flux in that small area 1510.

In many magnetic materials of interest, more inhomogeneous flux density distributions lead to higher overall losses. Moreover, the more inhomogeneous flux distribution may result in material saturation and cause localized heating of the area in which the magnetic flux is concentrated. The localized heating may alter the properties of the magnetic material, in some cases exacerbating the losses. For example, in the relevant regimes of operation of some materials, hysteresis and resistive losses increase with temperature. If heating the material increases material losses, resulting in more heating, the temperature of the material may continue to increase and even runaway if no corrective action is taken. In some instances, the temperature may reach 100 C or more and may degrade the properties of the magnetic material and the performance of wireless power transfer. In some instances, the magnetic materials may be damaged, or the surrounding electronic components, packaging and/or enclosures may be damaged by the excessive heat.

In embodiments, variations or irregularities between tiles or pieces of the block of magnetic material may be minimized by machining, polishing, grinding, and the like, the edges of the tiles or pieces to ensure a tight fit between tiles of magnetic materials providing a substantially more uniform reluctance through the whole cross section of the block of magnetic material. In embodiments, a block of magnetic material may require a means for providing a compression force between the tiles to ensure the tiles are pressed tight together without gaps. In embodiments, an adhesive may be used between the tiles to ensure they remain in tight contact.

In embodiments the irregular spacing of adjacent tiles of magnetic material may be reduced by adding a deliberate gap between adjacent tiles of magnetic material. In embodiments a deliberate gap may be used as a spacer to ensure even or regular separations between magnetic material tiles or pieces. Deliberate gaps of flexible materials may also reduce irregularities in the spacings due to tile movement or vibrations. In embodiments, the edges of adjacent tiles of magnetic material may be taped, dipped, coated, and the like with an electrical insulator, to prevent eddy currents from flowing through reduced cross-sectional areas of the block, thus lowering the eddy current losses in the material. In embodiments a separator may be integrated into the resonator packaging. The spacer may provide a spacing of 1 mm or less.

In embodiments, the mechanical properties of the spacer between tiles may be chosen so as to improve the tolerance of the overall structure to mechanical effects such as changes in the dimensions and/or shape of the tiles due to intrinsic effects (e.g, magnetostriction, thermal expansion, and the like) as well as external shocks and vibrations. For example, the spacer may have a desired amount of mechanical give to accommodate the expansion and/or contraction of individual tiles, and may help reduce the stress on the tiles when they are subjected to mechanical vibrations, thus helping to reduce the appearance of cracks and other defects in the magnetic material.

In embodiments, it may be preferable to arrange the individual tiles that comprise the block of magnetic material to minimize the number of seams or gaps between tiles that are perpendicular to the dipole moment of the resonator. In embodiments it may be preferable to arrange and orient the tiles of magnetic material to minimize the gaps between tiles that are perpendicular to the axis formed by the loops of a conductor comprising the resonator.

For example, consider the resonator structure depicted in FIG. 16. The resonator comprises a conductor 1604 wrapped around a block of magnetic material comprising six separate individual tiles 1602 arranged in a three by two array. The arrangement of tiles results in two tile seams 1606, 1608 when traversing the block of magnetic material in one direction, and only one tile seam 1610 when traversing the block of magnetic material in the orthogonal direction. In embodiments, it may be preferable to wrap the conductor wire 1604 around the block of magnetic material such that the dipole moment of the resonator is perpendicular to the fewest number of tile seams. The inventors have observed that there is relatively less heating induced around seams and gaps 1606, 1608 that are parallel to the dipole moment of the resonator. Seams and gaps that run perpendicular to the dipole moment of the resonator may also be referred to as critical seams or critical seam areas. It may still be desirable, however, to electrically insulate gaps that run parallel to the dipole moment of the resonator (such as 1606 and 1608) so as to reduce eddy current losses. Uneven contact between tiles separated by such parallel gaps may cause eddy currents to flow through narrow contact points, leading to large losses at such points.

In embodiments, irregularities in spacing may be tolerated with adequate cooling of the critical seam areas to prevent the localized degradation of material properties when the magnetic material heats up. Maintaining the temperature of the magnetic material below a critical temperature may prevent a runaway effect caused by a sufficiently high temperature. With proper cooling of the critical seam area, the wireless energy transfer performance may be satisfactory despite the additional loss and heating effects due to irregular spacing, cracks, or gaps between tiles.

Effective heatsinking of the resonator structure to prevent excessive localized heating of the magnetic material poses several challenges. Metallic materials that are typically used for heatsinks and thermal conduction can interact with the magnetic fields used for wireless energy transfer by the resonators and affect the performance of the system. Their location, size, orientation, and use should be designed so as to not excessively lower the perturbed Q of the resonators in the presence of these heatsinking materials. In addition, owing to the relatively poor thermal conductivity of magnetic materials such as ferrites, a relatively large contact area between the heatsink and the magnetic material may be required to provide adequate cooling which may require placement of substantial amount of lossy materials close to the magnetic resonator.

In embodiments, adequate cooling of the resonator may be achieved with minimal effect on the wireless energy transfer performance with strategic placement of thermally conductive materials. In embodiments, strips of thermally conductive material may be placed in between loops of conductor wire and in thermal contact with the block of magnetic material.

One exemplary embodiment of a resonator with strips of thermally conductive material is depicted in FIG. 17. FIG. 17A shows the resonator structure without the conducting strips and with the block of magnetic material comprising smaller tiles of magnetic material forming gaps or seams. Strips of thermally conductive 1708 material may be placed in between the loops of the conductor 1702 and in thermal contact with the block of magnetic material 1704 as depicted in FIGS. 17B and 17C. To minimize the effects of the strips on the parameters of the resonator, in some embodiments it may be preferable to arrange the strips parallel to the loops of conductor or perpendicular to the dipole moment of the resonator. The strips of conductor may be placed to cover as much or as many of the seams or gaps between the tiles as possible especially the seams between tiles that are perpendicular to the dipole moment of the resonator.

In embodiments the thermally conductive material may comprise copper, aluminum, brass, thermal epoxy, paste, pads, and the like, and may be any material that has a thermal conductivity that is at least that of the magnetic material in the resonator (˜5 W/(K−m) for some commercial ferrite materials). In embodiments where the thermally conductive material is also electrically conducting, the material may require a layer or coating of an electrical insulator to prevent shorting and direct electrical contact with the magnetic material or the loops of conductor of the resonator.

In embodiments the strips of thermally conductive material may be used to conduct heat from the resonator structure to a structure or medium that can safely dissipate the thermal energy. In embodiments the thermally conductive strips may be connected to a heat sink such as a large plate located above the strips of conductor that can dissipate the thermal energy using passive or forced convection, radiation, or conduction to the environment. In embodiments the system may include any number of active cooling systems that may be external or internal to the resonator structure that can dissipate the thermal energy from the thermally conducting strips and may include liquid cooling systems, forced air systems, and the like. For example, the thermally conducting strips may be hollow or comprise channels for coolant that may be pumped or forced through to cool the magnetic material. In embodiments, a field deflector made of a good electrical conductor (such as copper, silver, aluminum, and the like) may double as part of the heatsinking apparatus. The addition of thermally and electrically conducting strips to the space between the magnetic material and the field deflector may have a marginal effect on the perturbed Q, as the electromagnetic fields in that space are typically suppressed by the presence of the field deflector. Such conducting strips may be thermally connected to both the magnetic material and the field deflector to make the temperature distribution among different strips more homogeneous.

In embodiments the thermally conducting strips are spaced to allow at least one loop of conductor to wrap around the magnetic material. In embodiments the strips of thermally conductive material may be positioned only at the gaps or seams of the magnetic material. In other embodiments, the strips may be positioned to contact the magnetic material at substantially throughout its complete length. In other embodiments, the strips may be distributed to match the flux density within the magnetic material. Areas of the magnetic material which under normal operation of the resonator may have higher magnetic flux densities may have a higher density of contact with the thermally conductive strips. In embodiments depicted in FIG. 17A) for example, the highest magnetic flux density in the magnetic material may be observed toward the center of the block of magnetic material and the lower density may be toward the ends of the block in the direction of the dipole moment of the resonator.

To show how the use of thermally conducting strips helps to reduce the overall temperature in the magnetic material as well as the temperature at potential hot spots, the inventors have performed a finite element simulation of a resonator structure similar to that depicted in FIG. 17C. The structure was simulated operating at a frequency of 235 kHz and comprising a block of EPCOS N95 magnetic material measuring 30 cm×30 cm×5 mm excited by 10 turns of litz wire (symmetrically placed at 25 mm, 40 mm, 55 mm, 90 mm and 105 mm from the plane of symmetry of the structure) carrying 40 A of peak current each, and thermally connected to a 50 cm×50 cm×4 mm field deflector by means of three 3×¾×1′ hollow square tubes (⅛″ wall thickness) of aluminum (alloy 6063) whose central axes are placed at −75 mm, 0 mm, and +75 from the symmetry plane of the structure. The perturbed Q due to the field deflector and hollow tubes was found to be 1400 (compared to 1710 for the same structure without the hollow tubes). The power dissipated in the shield and tubes was calculated to be 35.6 W, while that dissipated in the magnetic material was 58.3 W. Assuming the structure is cooled by air convection and radiation and an ambient temperature of 24° C., the maximum temperature in the structure was 85° C. (at points in the magnetic material approximately halfway between the hollow tubes) while the temperature in parts of the magnetic material in contact with the hollow tubes was approximately 68° C. By comparison, the same resonator without the thermally conducting hollow tubes dissipated 62.0 W in the magnetic material for the same excitation current of 40 W peak and the maximum temperature in the magnetic material was found to be 111° C.

The advantage of the conducting strips is more apparent still if we introduce a defect in a portion of the magnetic material that is in good thermal contact with the tubes. An air gap 10 cm long and 0.5 mm placed at the center of the magnetic material and oriented perpendicular to the dipole moment increases the power dissipated in the magnetic material to 69.9 W (the additional 11.6 W relative to the previously discussed no-defect example being highly concentrated in the vicinity of the gap), but the conducting tube ensures that the maximum temperature in the magnetic material has only a relative modest increase of 11° C. to 96° C. In contrast, the same defect without the conducting tubes leads to a maximum temperature of 161° C. near the defect. Cooling solutions other than convection and radiation, such as thermally connecting the conducting tubes body with large thermal mass or actively cooling them, may lead to even lower operational temperatures for this resonator at the same current level.

In embodiments thermally conductive strips of material may be positioned at areas that may have the highest probability of developing cracks that may cause irregular gaps in the magnetic material. Such areas may be areas of high stress or strain on the material, or areas with poor support or backing from the packaging of the resonator. Strategically positioned thermally conductive strips may ensure that as cracks or irregular gaps develop in the magnetic material, the temperature of the magnetic material will be maintained below its critical temperature. The critical temperature may be defined as the Curie temperature of the magnetic material, or any temperature at which the characteristics of the resonator have been degraded beyond the desired performance parameters.

In embodiments the heastsinking structure may provide mechanical support to the magnetic material. In embodiments the heatsinking structure may be designed to have a desired amount of mechanical give (e.g., by using epoxy, thermal pads, and the like having suitable mechanical properties to thermally connect different elements of the structure) so as to provide the resonator with a greater amount of tolerance to changes in the intrinsic dimensions of its elements (due to thermal expansion, magnetostriction, and the like) as well as external shocks and vibrations, and prevent the formation of cracks and other defects.

In embodiments where the resonator comprises orthogonal windings wrapped around the magnetic material, the strips of conducting material may be tailored to make thermal contact with the magnetic material within areas delimited by two orthogonal sets of adjacent loops. In embodiments a strip may contain appropriate indentations to fit around the conductor of at least one orthogonal winding while making thermal contact with the magnetic material at least one point. In embodiments the magnetic material may be in thermal contact with a number of thermally conducting blocks placed between adjacent loops. The thermally conducting blocks may be in turn thermally connected to one another by means of a good thermal conductor and/or heatsinked.

Throughout this description although the term thermally conductive strips of material was used as an exemplary specimen of a shape of a material it should be understood by those skilled in the art that any shapes and contours may be substituted without departing from the spirit of the inventions. Squared, ovals, strips, dots, elongated shapes, and the like would all be within the spirit of the present invention.

Communication in a Wireless Energy Transfer System

A wireless energy transfer system may require a verification step to ensure that energy is being transferred between designated resonators. For example, in wireless energy transfer systems, source resonators, device resonators, and repeater resonators, do not require physical contact with each other in order to exchange energy, and these resonators may be separated from each other by distances of centimeters or meters, depending on the size and number of resonators in the system. In some configurations, multiple resonators may be in a position to generate or receive power, but only two or some of those resonators are designated resonators.

Communication of information between resonators in a wireless energy transfer system may be utilized to designate resonators. Communication of information between resonators may be implemented using in-band or out-of-band communications or communications channels. If at least some part of a magnetic resonator used to exchange power is also used to exchange information, and the carrier frequency of the information exchange is close to the resonant frequency used in the power exchange, we refer to that communication as in-band. Any other type of communication between magnetic resonators is referred to as out-of-band. An out-of-band communication channel may use an antenna and a signaling protocol that is separated from the energy transfer resonator and magnetic fields. An out-of-band communication channel may use or be based on Bluetooth, WiFi, Zigbee, NFC technology and the like.

Communication between resonators may be used to coordinate the wireless energy transfer or to adjust the parameters of a wireless energy transfer system, to identify and authenticate available power sources and devices, to optimize efficiency, power delivery, and the like, to track and bill energy preferences, usage, and the like, and to monitor system performance, battery condition, vehicle health, extraneous objects, also referred to as foreign objects, and the like. Methods for designating and verification resonators for energy transfer may be different when in-band and out-of-band communication channels are used because the distance over which communication signals may be exchanged using out-of-band techniques may greatly exceed the distance over which the power signals may be exchanged. Also, the bandwidth of out-of-band communication signals may be larger than in-band communication signals. This difference in communication range and capability may affect the coordination of the wireless energy transfer system. For example, the number of resonators that may be addressed using out-of-band communication may be very large and communicating resonators may be farther apart than the distance over which they may efficiently exchange energy.

In some embodiments all of the signaling and communication may be performed using an in-band communication channel and the signals may be modulated on the fields used for energy transfer. In other embodiments, in-band communication may use substantially the same frequency spectrum as for energy transfer, but communication occurs while not transferring substantial energy. Using only the in-band communication channel may be preferable if separate or multiple verification steps are problematic, because the range of the communication may be limited to the same range as the power exchange or because the information arrives as a modulation on the power signal itself. In some embodiments however, a separate out-of-band communication channel may be more desirable. For example, an out-of-band communication channel may be less expensive to implement and may support higher data rates. An out-of-band communication channel may support longer distance communication, allowing resonator discovery and power system mapping. An out-of-band communication channel may operate regardless of whether or not power transfer is taking place and may occur without disruption of the power transfer.

An exemplary embodiment of a wireless energy system is shown in FIG. 18. This exemplary embodiment comprises two device resonators 1802, 1816 each with an out-of-band communication module 1804, 1818 respectively and two source resonators 1806, 1810 each with their own out-of-band communication modules 1808, 1812 respectively. The system may use the out-of-band communication channel to adjust and coordinate the energy transfer. The communication channel may be used to discover or find resonators in the proximity, to initiate power transfer, and to communicate adjustment of operating parameters such as power output, impedance, frequency, and the like of the individual resonators.

In some situations a device resonator may incorrectly communicate with one source but receive energy from another source resonator. For example, imagine that device 1802 sends an out-of-band communication signal requesting power from a source. Source 1810 may respond and begin to supply power to device 1802. Imagine that device 1816 also sends an out-of-band communication signal requesting power from a source and that source 1806 responds and begins to supply power to device 1816. Because of the proximity of device 1802 to source 1806, it is possible that device 1802 receives some or most of its power from source 1806. If the power level received by device 1802 becomes too high, device 1802 may send an out-of-band communication signal to source 1810 to reduce the power it is transmitting to device 1802. However, device 1802 may still be receiving too much power, because it is receiving power from source 1806 but is not communicating control signals to source 1806.

Therefore, the separation of the energy transfer channel and the communication channel may create performance, control, safety, security, reliability, and the like issues in wireless energy transfer systems. In embodiments, it may be necessary for resonators in a wireless energy transfer system to identify/designate and verify any and all resonators with which it is exchanging power. As those skilled in the art will recognize, the example shown in FIG. 18 is just one example and there exist many configurations and arrangements of wireless power transmission systems that may benefit from explicit or implicit energy transfer verification steps.

In embodiments, the potential performance, control, safety, security, reliability and the like, issues may be avoided by providing an additional verification step that insures that the energy transfer channel and the communication channel used by a pair of resonators are associated with the same pair of resonators.

In embodiments the verification step may comprise some additional information exchange or signaling through the wireless energy transfer channel. A verification step comprising communication or information exchange using the energy transfer channel, or fields of the energy transfer channel may be used to verify that the out-of-band communication channel is exchanging information between the same two resonators that are or will be exchanging energy.

In embodiments with an out-of-band communication channel the verification step may be implicit or explicit. In some embodiments verification may be implicit. In embodiments an energy transfer channel may be implicitly verified by monitoring and comparing the behavior of the energy transfer channel to expected behavior or parameters in response to the out-of-band information exchange. For example, after establishing out-of-band communications, a device may request that a wireless source increase the amount of power it is transmitting. At the same time, parameters of the wireless energy transfer channel and resonators may be monitored. An observed increase of delivered power at the device may be used to infer that the out-of-band communication channel and the energy transfer channel are correctly linked to the designated resonators.

In embodiments an implicit verification step may involve monitoring any number of the parameters of the wireless energy transfer or parameters of the resonators and components used in the wireless energy transfer. In embodiments the currents, voltages, impedances, frequency, efficiency, temperatures, of the resonators and their drive circuits and the like may be monitored and compared to expected values, trends, changes and the like as a result of an out-of-band communication exchange.

In embodiments a resonator may store tables of measured parameters and expected values, trends, and/or changes to these parameters as a consequence of a communication exchange. A resonator may store a history of communications and observed parameter changes that may be used to verify the energy transfer channel. In some cases a single unexpected parameter change due to a communication exchange may be not be conclusive enough to determine the out-of-band channel is incorrectly paired. In some embodiments the history of parameter changes may be scanned or monitored over several or many communication exchanges to perform verification.

An example algorithm showing the series of steps which may be used to implicitly verify an energy transfer channel in a wireless energy transfer system using out-of-band communication is shown in FIG. 19A. In the first step 1902 an out-of-band communication channel between a source and a device is established. In the next step 1904 the source and device may exchange information regarding adjusting the parameters of the wireless energy transfer or parameters of the components used for wireless energy transfer. The information exchange on the out-of-band communication channel may be a normal exchange used in normal operation of the system to control and adjust the energy transfer. In some systems the out-of-band communication channel may be encrypted preventing eavesdropping, impersonation, and the like. In the next step 1906 the source and the device or just a source or just a device may monitor and keep track of any changes to the parameters of the wireless energy transfer or any changes in parameters in the components used in the energy transfer. The tracked changes may be compared against expected changes to the parameters as a consequence of any out-of-band communication exchanges. Validation may be considered failed when one or many observed changes in parameters do not correspond to expected changes in parameters.

In some embodiments of wireless energy transfer systems verification may be explicit. In embodiments a source or a device may alter, dither, modulate, and the like the parameters of the wireless energy transfer or the parameters of the resonators used in the wireless energy transfer to communicate or provide a verifiable signal to a source or device through the energy transfer channel. The explicit verification may involve changing, altering, modulating, and the like some parameters of the wireless energy transfer or the parameters of the resonators and components used in the energy transfer for the explicit purpose of verification and may not be associated with optimizing, tuning, or adjusting the energy transfer.

The changing, altering, modulating, and the like some parameters of the wireless energy transfer or the parameters of the resonators and components used in the energy transfer for the purpose of signaling or communicating with another wireless energy resonator or component may also be referred to as in-band communication. In embodiments, the in-band communication channel may be implemented as part of the wireless energy transfer resonators and components. Information may be transmitted from one resonator to another by changing the parameters of the resonators. Parameters such as inductance, impedance, resistance, and the like may be dithered or changed by one resonator. These changes may affect the impedance, resistance, or inductance of other resonators around the signaling resonator. The changes may manifest themselves as corresponding dithers of voltage, current, and the like on the resonators which may be detected and decoded into messages. In embodiments, in-band communication may comprise altering, changing, modulating, and the like the power level, amplitude, phase, orientation, frequency, and the like of the magnetic fields used for energy transfer.

In one embodiment the explicit in-band verification may be performed after an out-of-band communication channel has been established. Using the out-of-band communication channel a source and a device may exchange information as to the power transfer capabilities and in-band signaling capabilities. Wireless energy transfer between a source and a device may then be initiated. The source or device may request or challenge the other source or device to signal using the in-band communication channel to verify the connection between the out-of-band and communication channel and the energy transfer channel. The channel is verified when the agreed signaling established in the out-of-band communication channel is observed at the in-band communication channel.

In embodiments verification may be performed only during specific or pre-determined times of an energy exchange protocol such as during energy transfer startup. In other embodiments explicit verification steps may be performed periodically during the normal operation of the wireless energy transfer system. The verification steps may be triggered when the efficiency or characteristics of the wireless power transfer change which may signal that the physical orientations have changed. In embodiments the communication controller may maintain a history of the energy transfer characteristics and initiate a verification of the transfer that includes signaling using the resonators when a change in the characteristics is observed. A change in the energy transfer characteristics may be observed as a change in the efficiency of the energy transfer, the impedance, voltage, current, and the like of the resonators, or components of the resonators and power and control circuitry.

Those skilled in the art will appreciate a signaling and communication channel capable of transmitting messages may be secured with any number of encryption, authentication, and security algorithms. In embodiments the out-of-band communication may be encrypted and the secured communication channel may be used to transmit random sequences for verification using the in-band channel. In embodiments the in-band communication channel may be encrypted, randomized, or secured by any known security and cryptography protocols and algorithms. The security and cryptography algorithms may be used to authenticate and verify compatibility between resonators and may use a public key infrastructure (PKI) and secondary communication channels for authorization and authentication.

In embodiments of an energy transfer system between a source and a device a device may verify the energy transfer channel to ensure it is receiving energy from the desired or assumed source. A source may verify the energy transfer channel to ensure energy is being transferred to the desired or assumed source. In some embodiments the verification may be bidirectional and a source and device may both verify their energy transfer channels in one step or protocol operation. In embodiments, there may be more than two resonators and there may be repeater resonators. In embodiments of multiple resonators, communication and control may be centralized in one or a few resonators or communication and control may be distributed across many, most, or all the resonators in a network. In embodiments, communication and/or control may be effected by one or more semiconductor chips or microcontrollers that are coupled to other wireless energy transfer components.

An example algorithm showing the series of steps which may be used to explicitly verify an energy transfer channel in a wireless energy transfer system using out-of-band communication is shown in FIG. 19B. In the first step 1908 an out-of-band communication channel between a source and a device is established. In the next step 1910 the source and device may coordinate or agree on a signaling protocol, method, scheme, and the like that may be transmitted through the wireless energy transfer channel. To prevent eavesdropping and provide security the out-of-band communication channel may be encrypted and the source and device may follow any number of known cryptographic authentication protocols. In a system enabled with cryptographic protocols the verification code may comprise a challenge-response type exchange which may provide an additional level of security and authentication capability. A device, for example, may challenge the source to encrypt a random verification code which it sends to the source via the out-of-band communication channel using a shared secret encryption key or a private key. The verification code transmitted in the out-of-band communication channel may then be signaled 1912 through the in-band communication channel. In the case where the source and device are enabled with cryptographic protocols the verification code signaled in the in-band communication channel may be encrypted or modified by the sender with a reversible cryptographic function allowing the receiver to further authenticate the sender and verify that the in-band communication channels are linked with the same source or device associated with the out-of-band communication channel.

In situations when the verification fails a wireless energy transfer system may try to repeat the validation procedure. In some embodiments the system may try to re-validate the wireless energy transfer channel by exchanging another verification sequence for resignaling using the in-band communication channel. In some embodiments the system may change or alter the sequence or type of information that is used to verify the in-band communication channel after attempts to verify the in-band communication channel have failed. The system may change the type of signaling, protocol, length, complexity and the like of the in-band communication verification code.

In some embodiments, upon failure of verification of the in-band communication channel and hence the energy transfer channel, the system may adjust the power level, the strength of modulation, frequency of modulation and the like of the signaling method in the in-band communication channel. For example, upon failure of verification of a source by a device, the system may attempt to perform the verification at a higher energy transfer level. The system may increase the power output of the source generating stronger magnetic fields. In another example, upon failure of verification of a source by a device, the source that communicated the verification code to the device by changing the impedance of its source resonator may increase or even double the amount of change in the impedance of the source resonator for the signaling.

In embodiments, upon failure of verification of the energy transfer channel, the system may try to probe, find, or discover other possible sources or devices using the out-of-band communication channel. In embodiments the out-of-band communication channel may be used to find other possible candidates for wireless energy transfer. In some embodiments the system may change or adjust the output power or the range of the out-of-band communication channel to help minimize false pairings.

The out-of-band communication channel may be power modulated to have several modes, long range mode to detect sources and a short range or low power mode to ensure the communication is with another device or source that is in close proximity. In embodiments the out-of-band communication channel may be matched to the range of the wireless channel for each application. After failure of verification of the energy transfer channel the output power of the out-of-band communication channel may be slowly increased to find other possible sources or devices for wireless energy transfer. As discussed above, an out-of-band communication channel may exhibit interferences and obstructions that may be different from the interferences and obstructions of the energy transfer channel and sources and devices that may require higher power levels for out-of-band communication may be in close enough proximity to allow wireless energy transfer.

In some embodiments the out-of-band communication channel may be directed, arranged, focused, and the like, using shielding or positioning to be only effective in a confined area (i.e., under a vehicle), to insure it is only capable of establishing communication with another source or device that is in close enough proximity, position, and orientation for energy transfer.

In embodiments the system may use one or more supplemental sources of information to establish an out-of-band communication channel or to verify an in-band energy transfer channel. For example, during initial establishment of an out-of-band communication channel the locations of the sources or devices may be compared to known or mapped locations or a database of locations of wireless sources or devices to determine the most probable pair for successful energy transfer. Out-of-band communication channel discovery may be supplemented with GPS data from one or more GPS receivers, data from positioning sensors, inertial guidance systems and the like.

Tunable Wireless Power Transmission System Architectures

One embodiment of a system diagram for a source unit in a wireless power transmission system is shown in FIG. 20A. The DC/DC converter in this embodiment may be used to allow for regulation of at least one source parameter, such as the DC bus voltage of the switching amplifier and thus the output power of the amplifier. An embodiment of a system diagram for a device unit in a wireless power transmission system is shown in FIG. 20B. The DC/DC converter in this embodiment may be used to allow for regulation of at least one device parameter, such as the DC load voltage at the output of the DC/DC converter or the impedance seen at the input of the rectifier. In this specification, we will demonstrate that the same parameters in the source and device units can be regulated and full tuning of the system can be achieved without the DC/DC converters, but only using controllable (tunable) switching amplifiers and rectifiers, as shown in FIGS. 21A and 21B. Since each power system stage (such as a DC/DC converter) in a system typical comes with some efficiency cost, eliminating stages may eliminate the energy losses of these stages. Thus, wireless power transmission system embodiments not utilizing DC to DC converters may have improved system efficiency relative to systems that do use DC to DC converters.

Tunable Switching Converters

A switching amplifier and rectifier may have a half-bridge or a full-bridge topology of class D or E. For one illustrative embodiment, we will consider a half-bridge topology of class D, where the voltage on the DC side of the converter (amplifier or rectifier) may be approximately constant and may be achieved by using an appropriately-sized DC filter parallel capacitor and the current on the AC side of the converter may be approximately sinusoidal and may be achieved by using an appropriately-sized filter series inductor, to filter the higher current harmonics produced by the switching converter. The topology for an exemplary amplifier and an exemplary rectifier is shown in FIGS. 22A and 22B. Although a particular example topology may be examined here, it is to be understood that any topology may be used in a system of wireless power transmission, designed with the general principles of the current specification. For example, a full-bridge converter with a DC filter series inductor and an AC filter parallel capacitor may be designed to provide a sinusoidal AC voltage and a constant DC current.

A switching converter may suffer losses during conduction through the switches and at the switching instances, if a switch with a parallel capacitance is turned on at non-zero voltage or if a switch with a series inductance is turned off at non-zero current.

Rectifiers

Rectifiers may often utilize diodes as switches, which may have a small parallel capacitance. Since diodes may be considered self-switched, in the topology of FIG. 22B they may typically be self-turned ON at near-zero voltage and turned OFF at near-zero current, thus they may not suffer switching losses. However, they may suffer large conduction losses due to the diode voltage drop. Thus, MOSFETs, or any type of active switch including, but not limited to, transistors, field effect transistors (FETs), IGBTs and the like, may preferably be used as switches, and may be synchronized to the input current waveform and configured to operate in a similar manner to the diodes, but suffering only the much smaller conduction losses due to the small ON-resistance of the MOSFETs. This replacement of the diodes with MOSFETs leads to an architecture that is sometimes referred to as a synchronous rectifier. MOSFETs may have a parallel output capacitance and a parallel reverse body diode. In some embodiments, an external capacitance and/or diode may be connected in parallel to each MOSFET of a rectifier bridge. The external diodes may be Schottky diodes. The effective capacitance, C_(r), of the MOSFET bridge may be defined as the capacitance seen from the input to the bridge when no switch is ON. The effect on efficiency due to the ON-resistance of the switches may be larger the smaller the real part of the AC input rectifier impedance is, as during conduction the switches are in series with the input. In some embodiments, MOSFETs of ON-resistance substantially smaller than the expected real parts of the input impedance may be chosen.

In some embodiments, the MOSFETs may be switched ON and OFF at substantially the same point as when the diodes would be switched ON and OFF, so that the parallel capacitance may be discharged (namely at zero voltage) at switch-ON (the so-called Zero Voltage Switching, ZVS, condition) and so that the parallel diode may not conduct. Rather, the current flows through the MOSFET itself. Therefore, the rectifier may be operating with minimal losses, the small conduction losses of the ON-resistance of the MOSFETs. For the topology of FIG. 22B, the corresponding voltage, current and switching waveforms are shown in FIG. 23A, where it can be seen that they are symmetric for the two halves of the period and that there are dead times when both switches are OFF. In this mode of operation, the dead time phase, φ_(o), the ON duty cycle, D, of the upper switch, the input complex impedance of the rectifier, Z_(r), and the ratio, Z_(IO), of the DC output voltage, V_(DC), to the amplitude of the input sinusoidal current, I_(AC), may depend only on the DC load resistance, R_(l), and the effective capacitance, C_(r). For the half-bridge embodiment of FIG. 22B, the Z_(IO) ratio, the dead time phase and the complex input impedance of the rectifier Z_(r) are given by the formulas:

$\begin{matrix} {{{Z_{IO} \equiv \frac{V_{{D\; C}\;}}{I_{A\; C}}} = \frac{2R_{l}}{{2\;\pi} + {\omega\; C_{r}R_{l}}}}{{\phi_{o} = {\cos^{- 1}\frac{{2\;\pi} - {\omega\; C_{r}R_{l}}}{{2\;\pi} + {\omega\; C_{r}R_{l}}}}},{D_{o} = {0.5 - \frac{\phi_{o}}{2\;\pi}}}}{Z_{r} = \frac{{\sin^{2}\phi_{o}} + {j\left( {{\sin\;\phi_{o}\cos\;\phi_{o}} - \phi_{o}} \right)}}{\pi\;\omega\; C_{r}}}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

In some embodiments, the appropriate dead time phase, φ_(o), may be calculated and adjusted in real time during operation by a microcontroller or other processor component inside the device unit via knowledge of C_(r) and real-time measurement of the DC load resistance, R_(l). The MOSFET rectifier during operation may be dynamically adjusting, so that ZVS may be maintained and the parallel diodes may not conduct (or conduct only minimally), so its efficiency may be optimized, while the load may be varying. In some embodiments, the full input voltage waveform may be monitored and the dead time phase may be adjusted to substantially maintain ZVS and minimal or no conduction through the parallel diodes.

Note that, in this mode of operation of this embodiment of a rectifier, the switches may be also turned OFF at zero current (the so-called Zero Current Switching, ZCS, condition). This is how a diode switch might self-turn OFF and we have designed the MOSFETs to mimic the diode operation. Since diodes and MOSFETs may not have substantial series inductance, maintaining ZCS at turn OFF may not be important. Therefore, in some embodiments, one may design a MOSFET rectifier so that the MOSFETs may turn OFF not at the ZCS time-instant, but at a later time. Such a design may not compromise the ability to turn the MOSFETs ON with ZVS, as this may be feasible with a mere adjustment of the associated dead times during which both switches are OFF. FIG. 23B shows the voltage, current and switching waveforms for embodiments where only one (the lower) switch is turned-OFF at a time shifted from the ZCS time-instant. FIG. 23C shows the waveforms for embodiments where both (lower and upper) switches are shifted from ZCS by the same phase, so that the waveforms are still symmetric for the two halves of the period. FIG. 23C shows the waveforms for embodiments where both switches are shifted from ZCS, but by different phases. The waveforms in FIGS. 23B and 23D are not symmetric for the two halves of the period. Therefore, in the above embodiments of switching sequences for the lower and upper MOSFETs of the half-bridge rectifier, the OFF switching times may be independently tuned (delayed from ZCS). Then, as these are tuned, the input complex impedance of the rectifier, Z_(r), may be adjusted, even though the DC load resistance, R_(l), may be fixed or variable, and thus the DC rectifier output voltage and power may be adjusted. These adjustments may be made without substantial sacrifice to efficiency, as ZVS may not be lost and the parallel diodes may almost never conduct or conduct minimally. Each one of the above operating-mode embodiments may give different AC input impedance even for the same DC load impedance. Thus, the operating mode may be chosen according to the desired output voltage or power adjustments or according to the subsequent real parts of the AC input impedance, so that the effects of the ON-resistance of the MOSFETs on efficiency may be minimized.

In the operating mode shown in FIG. 23B, the ON duty cycle, D, of the upper switch may be independently tuned to a value between zero and D_(o). The electric characteristics of this half-bridge rectifier embodiment is given by the formulas for Z_(IO), ϕ_(ON), and Z_(r):

$\begin{matrix} {\mspace{79mu}{{{Z_{IO} \equiv \frac{V_{{D\; C}\;}}{I_{A\; C}}} = {\frac{1}{\pi}R_{l}{\sin^{2}\left( {\pi\; D} \right)}}}\mspace{79mu}{{\phi_{ON} = {\cos^{- 1}\left\lbrack {{\omega\; C_{r}Z_{IO}} - {\cos\left( {2\;\pi\; D} \right)}} \right\rbrack}},\mspace{79mu}{\phi_{1} = {\pi - {2\;\pi\; D}}},\;{\phi_{2} = {\cos^{- 1}\left( {{\omega\; C_{r}Z_{IO}} - 1} \right)}}}{Z_{r} = {{\frac{2}{\pi^{2}}R_{l}{\sin^{4}\left( {\pi\; D} \right)}} + {j\frac{\begin{matrix} {\pi + \left( {{\sin\;\phi_{2}\cos\;\phi_{2}} - \phi_{2}} \right) + \left( {{\sin\;\phi_{1}\cos\;\phi_{1}} - \phi_{1}} \right) -} \\ \left( {{\sin\;\phi_{ON}\cos\;\phi_{ON}} - \phi_{ON}} \right) \end{matrix}}{2\;\pi\;\omega\; C_{r}}}}}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

Notice that, for ϕ_(ON)=0, then ϕ₁=ϕ₂−π=ϕ_(o) and D=D_(o) giving the previous results of the rectifier embodiment, where the duty cycle is not tuned independently of the DC load and ZCS is maintained.

In some embodiments, the appropriate phases, ϕ_(ON), ϕ₁, ϕ₂ may be calculated and adjusted in real time during operation by a microcontroller or other processor component inside the device unit via knowledge of C_(r), a real-time measurement of the DC load resistance, R_(l), and/or knowledge of one or more desired system performance characteristic, such as the duty cycle D, the ratio Z_(IO), and/or the real part of the rectifier impedance, and the like. In such embodiments, the tunable MOSFET rectifier during operation may be dynamically adjusting, so that ZVS may be maintained and the parallel diodes may almost never or may minimally conduct, so its efficiency may be optimized, while the load may be varying and the desired output voltage or power or input impedance level may be regulated. In some embodiments, the full input voltage waveform may be monitored and the phases ϕ_(ON), ϕ₁, ϕ₂ may be adjusted to substantially maintain ZVS and little or no conduction through the parallel diodes.

Similar conclusions may be made for the operating modes of FIGS. 23C and 23D. Again, the input impedance of the rectifier, the output voltage and the power level may be adjusted by tuning the one or two phase-shifts from ZCS.

In some embodiments, the rectifier may have a full-bridge topology. To achieve the same duty-cycle tuning without compromising efficiency in a full bridge, the left and right sides of the bridge, in some embodiments, may operate with the switching waveforms shown in FIG. 23C but phase-shifted by a half period and, in some embodiments, with the switching waveforms shown in FIG. 23A but phase-shifted by some value less than a half period.

Amplifiers

In one embodiment of the amplifier in FIG. 22A, MOSFETs may be used as switches. MOSFETs may have a parallel output capacitance and a parallel reverse body diode. In some embodiments, an external capacitance and/or diode may be connected in parallel to each MOSFET of an amplifier bridge. In some embodiments, the external diodes may be Schottky diodes. The effective capacitance, C_(a), of the MOSFET bridge may be defined as the capacitance seen from the output of the amplifier when no switch is ON. The effect on efficiency due to the ON-resistance of the switches may be larger the smaller is the real part of the AC impedance at the amplifier output, as during conduction the switches may be in series with the output. In some embodiments, MOSFETs of ON-resistance substantially smaller than the expected real parts of the output impedance may be chosen. Since the topologies of FIG. 22A, 22B of the MOSFET amplifier and rectifier are the same, one may analyze the different possible operating modes of the amplifier by time-reversing the waveforms of the corresponding rectifier.

In some embodiments, for the low and high switches of the half bridge one may use a switching sequence, which is symmetric between the two halves of the period. In such embodiments, if at the output of the amplifier one connects a complex impedance of value Z*_(r), where Z_(r) is given in Eq. (1), then the DC input impedance of the amplifier, R_(a), may be equal to the corresponding R_(l) of Eq. (1), the ON duty cycle of the upper switch may be D_(o) as given in Eq. (1) and the voltage and current waveforms may be the time-reversed of those in FIG. 23A indicating that simultaneous ZVS and ZCS may be achieved. If at the output of the amplifier one connects a complex impedance of a value that cannot be given by Eq. (1) for any R_(l), then ZVS and ZCS may not be achievable simultaneously. For a set of complex impedances which are inductive, ZVS may be achieved, thus a high efficiency may be maintained, and the waveforms may be the time-reversed of those in FIG. 23C. Note again that the ZCS condition may not be crucial for the switching efficiency of the amplifier, as a MOSFET may not have a substantial series inductance. ZCS during the turn-ON of a switch, when accompanying ZVS, may mainly imply that the ZVS condition is accompanied by a voltage of also zero derivative and thus allowing for improved tolerances, in terms of timing, in accomplishing the ZVS instant. That is, allowing for some range of time over which ZVS is close enough. In these embodiments, the symmetric switching sequences and the duty cycle D may be uniquely determined by the AC complex impedance at the output of the amplifier and the requirement to achieve ZVS at the ON switching instances and little or no conduction through the parallel diodes. Therefore, given a fixed DC input voltage, adjusting the power level independently to a desired amount may not be possible without some sacrifice in efficiency.

In some embodiments, with the knowledge of C_(a) and real-time measurement of the AC output impedance the appropriate duty cycle D and dead times may be determined (i.e. calculated, found using lookup table, and the like) and adjusted in real time during operation by a microcontroller or other processor component inside the source unit. The MOSFET amplifier during operation may be dynamically adjusting, so that ZVS may be maintained and the parallel diodes may not conduct or may only minimally conduct, allowing the efficiency to be optimized while the output impedance may be varying. In some embodiments, the full input voltage waveform may be monitored and the switching sequence may be adjusted to substantially maintain ZVS and little or no conduction through the parallel diodes.

In some embodiments, for the low and high switches of the half bridge, one may use a switching sequence, which is asymmetric between the two halves of the period. That is, the ON switching times of the MOSFET may occur at or near ZVS to maintain adequate efficiency, but the OFF switching time of the upper MOSFET may be tunable. This scheme provides an independent tuning knob, with which the power of the amplifier may be adjustable. If at the output of the amplifier one connects a complex impedance of value Z*_(r), where Z_(r) is given in Eq. (2), then the DC input impedance of the amplifier, R_(a), may be equal to the corresponding R_(l) of Eq. (2), the ON duty cycle of the upper switch may be D as given in Eq. (2) and the voltage and current waveforms may be the time-reversed versions of those in FIG. 23B indicating that ZVS may be achieved at both turn-ON instances and ZCS may be achieved at one turn-ON instance. If at the output of the amplifier one connects a complex impedance of a value that cannot be given by Eq. (2) for any D and R_(l), then ZCS may not be achievable at any time. For a set of complex impedances which are inductive, ZVS may be achieved, thus a high efficiency may be maintained, and the waveforms may be the time-reversed versions of those in FIG. 23D.

In some embodiments, the appropriate duty cycle D and dead times may be determined and adjusted in real time during operation by a microcontroller or other processor component inside the source unit via knowledge of at least one of C_(a) and a real-time measurement of the AC output impedance, and knowledge of one more desired system performance characteristic, such as the duty cycle D, the ratio Z_(IO), and/or the DC input impedance and the like. The tunable MOSFET amplifier during operation may be dynamically adjusting so that ZVS may be maintained and the parallel diodes may almost never conduct or may conduct minimally, so its efficiency may be optimized, while the output impedance may be varying and the desired power level may be regulated. In some embodiments, the full input voltage waveform may be monitored and the switching sequence may be adjusted to substantially maintain ZVS and little or no conduction through the parallel diodes.

In some embodiments, the amplifier may have a full-bridge topology. To achieve the same duty-cycle tuning without compromising efficiency in a full bridge, the left and right sides of the bridge may operate with the switching waveforms shown in FIG. 23C but time reversed and phase-shifted by a half period or with the switching waveforms shown in FIG. 23A but time reversed and phase-shifted by some value less than a half period.

It may be concluded from the above that both a switching amplifier and a switching rectifier may be designed, so that a high efficiency may be maintained while an independent duty-cycle “knob” may be tuned to adjust some characteristic of the converter. This knob, or adjustable parameter, may be shown to be able to provide the tuning tasks in a system of wireless power transmission that otherwise a DC/DC converter may have been used to carry on.

Tunable Wireless Power Transmission Systems

As an exemplary embodiment, consider a scenario of a wireless power transmission, WPT, system, which may not be varying (R_(s), L_(s), R_(d), L_(d) and M_(sd) may not vary) and the load may be of constant resistance, R_(l). FIGS. 22A and 22B may illustrate such an exemplary embodiment. For such a fixed overall system, no tunable element may be needed in the source and in the device unit to optimize the end-to end efficiency. Rather, to optimize the efficiency of the system, as we have previously disclosed, one may design the Impedance Matching Network of the device, IMN_(d), so that, at the operating frequency, f=ω/2π, the input impedance, Z_(r), of the rectifier may be transformed to R_(d)(√{square root over (1+U²)}+1) when looking towards the load from the device coil or, equivalently, after subtraction of the device-coil impedance (R_(d)+jωL_(d)), to R_(d)√{square root over (1+U²)}−jωL_(d) when looking towards the load at the input of IMN_(d). The reflected impedance to the source coil may be R_(s)(√{square root over (1+U²)}−1) or, equivalently after addition of the source-coil impedance (R_(s)+jωL_(s)), R_(s)√{square root over (1+U²)}+jωL_(s) at the terminals of the source coil. One may therefore design the Impedance Matching Network of the source, IMN_(s), so that at the operating frequency this impedance may be transformed to an appropriate impedance, Z_(s), such that the amplifier is operating with minimal losses (for example with ZVS and ZCS) and is outputting the desired amount of power. When the above impedance levels have been achieved, we may say that the system is operating under impedance matching conditions.

The above impedance levels may enable good WPT efficiency. The power level may be adjusted, with a tunable amplifier that may be used to modify its output power by tuning its duty cycle (and giving up ZCS). In this way, the impedance levels of the whole WPT system may not be changing (impedance matching of the system may be maintained) and thus a good overall efficiency may be maintained. In some embodiments, a tunable rectifier may be used to modify its output power by tuning its duty cycle (and giving up ZCS) and thus its input impedance. In this way, the impedance levels of the WPT system may change, but in some cases the effects on efficiency may not be substantial.

As an another example consider a scenario of a WPT system where the load in the device unit is of constant resistance, R_(l), but the coil parameters (R_(s), L_(s), R_(d), L_(d) and M_(sd)) may vary due to variations in their relative position or varying external perturbations. In order to maintain the maximum WPT efficiency the impedance levels at the source and the device units may need to be tunable, so that an impedance R_(d)(√{square root over (1+U²)}+1) may be achieved when looking towards the load from the device coil and an impedance providing ZVS and ZCS may be achieved at the output of the amplifier. Since each of these two impedances may be complex and may have a real and imaginary part, in some embodiments, two tunable “knobs” (otherwise referred to as components, parameters, quantities, values, etc) may be used in the device and two in the source units. In some embodiments, as described above, the two knobs used in the source unit, which may provide the ability to tune for ZVS and ZCS as the system is varying, may be the duty cycle of the amplifier and the value of one tunable component inside the IMN_(s), such as the value of a tunable capacitor. Similarly, in some embodiments, the two knobs used in the device unit, which may provide the ability to tune for R_(d)(√{square root over (1+U²)}+1) as the system is varying, may be the duty cycle of the rectifier and the value of one tunable component inside the IMN_(d), such as the value of a tunable capacitor. A tunable amplifier may be used to reduce its output power by reducing its duty cycle (and giving up ZCS). In this way, the impedance levels of the whole WPT system may not be changing and thus a good overall efficiency may be maintained. To maintain a real impedance R_(d)(√{square root over (1+U²)}+1) at the device may imply that device resonance may need to be maintained. Similarly, to maintain ZVS and ZCS for the source amplifier may imply that source resonance may need to be maintained, otherwise the output impedance of the amplifier may take values such that not enough power may be delivered to it and that may be either capacitive, so that ZVS cannot be achieved, or very inductive, so that ZCS may be largely lost and the ON-resistance of the MOSFETs may be comparable to the real part of the output impedance thus leading to drop in efficiency due to ON conduction losses. The purpose of the tunable IMN elements in such embodiments may therefore be to maintain the resonance frequency of the resonators sufficiently close to the operating frequency.

In some embodiments, if only the coupling between the coils, namely M_(sd), may be substantially varying, tunable IMN may not be needed to provide sufficient power and with sufficient efficiency to the load. Fixed IMN may be designable so that the desired amount of power may be transmitted to the load over a desirable operating range of couplings, while a tunable rectifier may be used to improve on the efficiency by adjusting its input impedance and a tunable amplifier may be used to sufficiently achieve ZVS and little or no diode conduction, and additionally adjust the power level if required.

In another exemplary embodiment, consider now a scenario of a WPT system, where the coil parameters and coupling may not be varying (R_(s), L_(s), R_(d), L_(d) and M_(sd) may not vary) but the load may be asking for varying amounts of power and may need to be at a constant voltage. In some embodiments, such a load may the battery charging circuit of a battery, LED light, and the like. For such a scenario, a DC/DC converter may be used after the rectifier in the device unit to regulate the output voltage to the desired level, as shown in FIG. 20B. In this specification, we suggest that such a DC/DC converter may not be needed. Consider that the system may be initially designed at the maximum load power level, so that impedance matching may be achieved throughout the WPT system, optimizing the WPT efficiency, and so that the correct output DC voltage is seen at the load. In some embodiments, a tunable amplifier may be used at the source unit so that as the power demanded by the load is decreasing, the output power of the tunable amplifier may be reduced by the same amount (via reducing its duty cycle and losing ZCS) and this reduction may result in the DC load voltage and the impedance matching level to remaining substantially the same, since the system of coupled resonators may be substantially linear. In some embodiments, a tunable rectifier may be used to maintain the desired output DC voltage level at the load while the load power demand may be reduced. In such an embodiment, the efficiency of the WPT system may be affected as optimum impedance matching may be lost and the power output of the source amplifier may only vary according to the variation of its output impedance, but the efficiency may be sufficient for some applications.

In another exemplary embodiment, the above type of load may be used in a WPT system, which may also be varying (R_(s), L_(s), R_(d), L_(d) and M_(sd) may vary), as the coupling between the coils may be changing and external perturbations may be affecting the system. The desirable operating objectives that may need to be maintained in the system are four: (1) the DC load voltage for the specified operation of the load, (2,3) matching the impedance level R_(d)(√{square root over (1+U²)}+1) (real and imaginary part) as seen from the device coil looking towards the load for maximizing the WPT efficiency, and (4) resonance at the source, so that the impedance at the output of the amplifier (essentially the ratio of its real to imaginary part) may be at appropriate levels to allow for sufficient power to be delivered to it (and thus the device load) and to avoid capacitive or very inductive impedances, which may lead to reduced amplifier efficiency.

In order to maintain these four system objectives, typically one may need four tunable knobs in the system. In a proposed embodiment, the four knobs may be the tunable duty cycle of the source amplifier, the tunable duty cycle of the device rectifier, a tunable element (such as a capacitor) in the IMN_(s) and a tunable element (such as a capacitor) in the IMN_(d). In some embodiments, all four knobs may be tuned to achieve all four desirables simultaneously. In some embodiments, each knob may be targeted towards one desirable and, as all knobs tune for their individual targets, the system may converge to the overall desired condition. In one such embodiment, the duty cycle of the rectifier may be tuned to maintain the desired DC output voltage at the load, the tunable element in IMN_(s) may be tuned to maintain the source resonance, and the duty cycle of the amplifier together with the tunable element of the IMN_(d) may be tuned to maintain the impedance matching condition at the device. This last step may be achieved because adjusting the power level adjusts the AC input impedance of the rectifier (since a nonlinear load is connected to its output) and the tunable IMN_(d) element may be adjusting the resonance of the device. In another embodiment, the duty cycle of the amplifier may be tuned to adjust for a constant DC load voltage, the tunable element in IMN_(s) may again be tuned to maintain the source resonance, and the duty cycle of the rectifier together with the tunable element of the IMN_(d) may be tuned to maintain the impedance matching condition at the device.

In some embodiments, if the resonance of the device resonator is not varying substantially (typically because the inductance of the device coil is not varying substantially due to perturbations), a tunable element in the IMN_(d) may not be needed in order to achieve the desired power to be delivered to the load at the desired DC voltage and with sufficiently high efficiency. In some such embodiments, the tunable element of the IMN_(s) may be tuned to substantially maintain the source resonance, the duty cycle of the rectifier may be tuned to maintain the DC load voltage, and the duty cycle of the amplifier may be tuned to maximize the overall transmission efficiency. In some embodiments, the roles of the duty cycles of the amplifier and rectifier may be interchanged. In some embodiments, one duty cycle knob may be tuning to achieve a particular AC impedance level at the input of the rectifier, instead of maximizing efficiency.

In some embodiments, if only the coupling between the coils, namely M_(sd), may be substantially varying, tunable IMN may not be needed at the source nor at the device to provide the demanded power to the load at the required voltage level and with sufficient efficiency. In some embodiments, the duty cycle of the rectifier may be tuned to maintain the DC load voltage, and the duty cycle of the amplifier may be tuned to maximize the overall transmission efficiency. In some embodiments, the roles of the duty cycles of the amplifier and rectifier may be interchanged. In some embodiments, one duty cycle knob may be tuning to achieve a particular AC impedance level at the input of the rectifier, instead of maximizing efficiency.

In some embodiments, an additional knob, which can be tuned at the amplifier, is the switching (and thus operating) frequency. Tuning the frequency may provide power adjustments. In some embodiments of WPT with high-Q resonators, where close resonance is needed between the resonators, tuning the frequency may be used to adjust power, provided that all device units may include a tunable IMN, so that their resonance frequency may be adjusted to substantially match the operating frequency.

In some embodiments, additional tunable knobs, which may be available, may be additional tunable elements in the IMN of the source and the device.

In typical battery powered devices, a charging circuit may precede the battery in order to charge the battery with a specific charging profile on each charging cycle. In embodiments, the ability of the WPT system embodiments of the current specification to regulate the output of a device unit may allow for direct connection of the device unit to a battery, without the need for an additional charging circuit or if an additional charging circuit is still required, it may be smaller, less expensive, and may comprise fewer components. Namely, in embodiments, the WPT system may be itself the battery charging circuit for the battery, which performs all the battery management, such as monitoring the battery state (such as voltage or temperature) and demands different amounts of power at different parts of the charging cycle. Typical charging profiles, such as those for Li-ion or NiMH batteries, may include time intervals of constant current or constant voltage provided by the charging circuit. It has been demonstrated already in this specification that, in some embodiments, a WPT system may maintain the DC load voltage at the output of the rectifier by tuning at least one system knob. In some embodiments, this knob may be the duty cycle of the tunable rectifier. Upon direct connection to a battery, the battery may often automatically set the output voltage to its own internal instantaneous voltage. Therefore, in some embodiments, the system tuning knob may be tuned to maintain the DC load current at the output of the rectifier (instead of the voltage). In some embodiments, this tuning knob may again be the duty cycle of the tunable rectifier. In some embodiments, the WPT may implement any desired charging profile, including intervals of constant current or constant voltage, by tuning of at least one system knob. In some embodiments, this tuning knob may be the duty cycle of the tunable rectifier.

In embodiments of WPT systems, the control of the system leading to its tuning may depend on the measurement of a list of parameters. In the source unit, the DC voltage and current may be measured to determine the input power to the source amplifier and the DC impedance. A measurement of the source DC power, voltage and/or current may be used to tune the duty cycle of the amplifier in order to regulate the power, voltage and/or current input to the source unit. Also in the source unit, the AC voltage and/or current may be measured to determine the output power of the source amplifier and/or the AC impedance. A measurement of the AC impedance may be used, as explained earlier, to tune the switching times of the amplifier MOSFETs so that ZVS may be achieved and current almost never runs through the parallel diodes rather through the MOSFETs. A measurement of the AC impedance may also be used to tune the value of one or more tunable elements in the source impedance matching network in order to maintain the source resonance and/or in order to modify the AC impedance into a value that allows for the desired output power from the amplifier but with better amplifier efficiency. In the device unit, the DC voltage and/or current may be measured to determine the output power of the device rectifier delivered to the load and the instantaneous DC load impedance. A measurement of the device DC power, voltage and/or current may be used to tune the duty cycle of the rectifier in order to regulate the power, voltage and/or current output from the device unit to the load. Also in the device unit, the AC voltage and/or current may be measured to determine the input power to the device rectifier and/or the AC input impedance. A measurement of the DC impedance and synchronization to the input AC current waveform may be used, as explained earlier, to tune the switching times of the MOSFETs so that ZVS may be achieved and current almost never runs through the parallel diodes rather through the MOSFETs.

In some embodiments, an analog filter may be used to filter the sensed AC source and/or device voltage waveform. In some embodiments, the filter may include a Single-Amplifier-Biquad (SAB) high-Q lowpass or bandpass filter.

In some embodiments, the AC source and/or device current may be measured using a current-sense transformer. In some embodiments, if the impedance matching network includes an inductor connected in series to the AC side of the amplifier and/or rectifier, the AC current may be measured by modifying this inductor to a transformer by adding one or more secondary turns. In some embodiments, an analog filter may be used to filter the sensed current waveform. In some embodiments, the filter may include a Single-Amplifier-Biquad (SAB) high-Q lowpass or bandpass filter.

In embodiments of tunable rectifiers, the synchronization of the switching waveforms of the rectifier MOSFETs to the AC current input to the rectifier may be achieved using analog circuits, digital circuits, a microcontroller or any combination of those. In some embodiments, the AC current may be sensed, may be filtered and may be input to a comparator to generate a synchronization signal. In some embodiments, the comparator may be inside a microcontroller. The switching waveforms of the rectifier MOSFETs may need to be delayed with respect to the synchronization signal. In some embodiments, the delay may be accomplished with discrete analog or digital components or inside a microcontroller. In some embodiments, the switching waveforms of variable duty cycle (or phase shift) of the rectifier MOSFETs may be generated using analog and digital logic circuits or inside a microcontroller.

In embodiments of WPT systems, the control of the system leading to its tuning may require algorithms to be running in processing units, which may lie in the source unit, the device unit or both. The algorithms may utilize one or more of the measured system parameters and may be determining the necessary modifications to the tunable parameters of the system. The algorithm may be one global algorithm accepting all the measured parameters and delivering all the necessary tunings. The algorithm may be a sum of multiple algorithms, running in series or in parallel, and leading to global convergence. In such embodiments of multiple algorithms, some algorithms may be running in the source units and some may be running in the device units.

In embodiments of WPT systems, the control algorithms running in one unit of the WPT system may require information about parameters measured at a different unit of the WPT system. Such information may be communicated among different units via communication channels. In some embodiments, the communication channel of information transfer may be the same channel as that for energy transfer. In such embodiments of in-band communications, at least one parameter or component of the information-transmitting unit may need to be tunable so that a measurable change to the operation of the information-receiving unit may be effected. The tunable parameter or component may be the duty cycle in the converter of the unit or a tunable element in the IMN of the unit etc. In some embodiments, the communication channel of information transfer may be a different channel as that for energy transfer. In such embodiments of out-of-band communications, one may use any standard method and platform of communications operating at any frequency different than the WPT operating frequency, such as radio antennas, infrared LEDs and sensors, acoustic signals etc.

In embodiments of WPT systems, the symmetry of the tunable MOSFET amplifier and rectifier may allow for interchange of the roles of the units of the WPT system. Namely, a source unit may operate as a device and a device unit may operate as a source. The system therefore may allow for bidirectional flow of power. This feature may be very useful for several reasons, in terms of the control of the system and its applications. The bidirectional operation may be further facilitated when the load in the device unit is a battery itself. Then, the system may be able to run backwards without any topological modification.

In some embodiments of system control, some communications protocol may regulate that periodically, but for a very short amount of time, the system performs the following algorithm: all units in the WPT system operate as devices except for one, which operates as a source unit, so that it may perform measurements (and perhaps receive information via communication about the measurements performed in other units) and tune itself; all units take turns in being the one tuning unit, so that, when all units have tuned, the system has reached its optimal tuned state. In other embodiments, different algorithm variations may require that for short amounts of time a unit changes role from the one it normally has during power transmission.

In embodiments of applications, the ability for bidirectional operation of a unit may allow such a unit, which may normally operate as a device powered by a certain source, to operate at other times as a source powering different devices. As an example, a laptop computer may include a WPT unit, which typically operates as a device powered from a source unit embedded in a desk, but at other times (for example during travel) it may operate as a source to power device units inside cell phones, smartphones, headsets, digital cameras, etc.

The above descriptions of topologies and configurations of high-efficiency tunable converters in WPT systems may be extended to systems with multiple units, such as multiple sources and/or multiple devices and possibly multiple repeater units. In such embodiments, the tunable rectifier in each device unit may be tuning its duty cycle to adjust for a fixed DC voltage or a fixed DC current or any desired battery-charging profile at the load output. In some embodiments, the tunable amplifier in each source unit may be tuning its duty cycle to adjust its output power. This power adjustment may be such that the overall system efficiency may be optimized. In some embodiments, where tunable elements exist in the IMN of some or all of the system units, additional tuning knobs may allow for more complicated system control, which may have as final goal the optimization of the system efficiency, constrained by the required DC load voltages, load power demands, maximum source power deliverance ability etc. Typically different devices may have conflicting interests for increased or decreased power output from the one or more source units. In some embodiments, the power output from the source units may be adjusted to satisfy the largest power demand from all devices up to a maximum possible output power level. Then, in the devices which may be demanding for less power, there may be large circulating and thus dissipated power, if they are tuned close to resonance. In some embodiments, where one or more tunable elements exist in the IMN of a device, in a WPT system with multiple devices, the one or more tunable elements in the devices demanding less power may be detuned to reduce the dissipated power in the device, while maintaining the desired output power, voltage or current.

Example System Embodiments

FIG. 24 shows an exemplary block diagram of a wireless energy transfer system in accordance with the present invention. The system in FIG. 24 includes a wireless energy source that transfers energy to at least one wireless energy capture device. The system comprises tunable source elements and tunable device elements capable of adjusting the energy transfer of the system. The adjustment of energy transfer may be used to control the amount of energy transferred to the device. The adjustment may be used to control the power delivered to the load under different loading conditions and different device positions/orientations relative to the source. The adjustment of energy transfer may be used to ensure that energy is transferred efficiently by reducing wasted or dissipated energy in the system elements due to excessive energy stored or flowing through the system elements.

The source of the system may comprise a tunable switching amplifier and a tunable impedance matching network. The tunable elements of the source may be used to adjust the power output of the source, the efficiency of the source, and the resonant frequency of the source resonator. In the example embodiment, the tunable switching amplifier 2402 is connected to an energy source like a DC voltage source for example. The DC voltage of the energy source may be transformed to a switching or oscillating voltage via the switching amplifier 2402 and used to drive the source resonator coil 2422 through the impedance matching network 2404. The switching amplifier may have adjustable or tunable switching frequency. In some embodiments the frequency of the switching amplifier may be used to adjust the power output of the amplifier. Driving the source resonator below or above the resonant frequency of the source may be used to change the power output of the amplifier. In the example embodiment the switching amplifier may preferably have a substantially fixed or constant switching frequency during normal operation of the amplifier. The switching frequency of the amplifier may be preferably matched to the system frequency, or may be substantially equal to the resonant frequency of the source resonator. In this embodiment, the power control of the source is preferably controlled by adjusting the duty cycle of the amplifier or the phase shift of the amplifier.

The impedance matching network of the source 2404 may be tuned to provide efficient operation of the amplifier. The impedance matching network may comprise tunable components to provide impedance matching between the amplifier and the resonator of the source for efficient energy transfer. The impedance matching network may also comprise tunable components to provide control and adjustment of the resonant frequency of the source. The tunable components may be used to maintain the resonant frequency of the source at substantially the system frequency as the parameters of the resonators are perturbed by the environment, changed due to changes in the operation of the devices, movement of the devices, and the like.

The tunable elements of the source may be controlled via feedback or control loops in the source. The tunable elements of the source may be controlled via feedback or control loops based on measured parameters of the source voltages, currents, temperatures, field strengths, and the like. The tunable elements of the source may be controlled via feedback or control loops using information exchanged with the devices of the system.

In the example embodiment shown in FIG. 24 for example, the source may include amplifier control 2410 that makes one or more measurements of the DC voltage and DC current at the input to the amplifier. Measuring the input voltage and current at the input of the amplifier 2416, it may be possible to determine the power input to the source and it may be possible to infer the power output of the source. The amplifier control may adjust the duty cycle or the phase shift of the switching elements of the amplifier 2402 to adjust the power input to or output of the amplifier. The amplifier control may be communicatively coupled to the device and may adjust the duty cycle or phase shift of the amplifier based on the power delivered to the device or power requested by the device.

In the system the duty cycle or phase shift of the amplifier may need periodic or constant adjustment as a result of changes in the amount of power delivered or required by the device. The power required by the device may change due to a change in coupling between the source resonator coil 2422 and device resonator coil 2424, movement of devices, power draw of other devices in the system, and the like. For example, the coupling between the source resonator coil and device resonator coil may decrease if the device is positioned further away from the source. Due to the further positioning the power delivered to the device resonator coil 2424 may decrease. To maintain a specific power delivered to the device the amplifier control may increase the duty cycle of the switching elements of the amplifier to deliver more power to at the output of the source resonator coil.

In the example embodiment shown in FIG. 24, the source may include an impedance matching control 2412 that makes one or more measurements of the AC voltage and AC current 2418 at the output of the amplifier 2402. By measuring the characteristics of the waveform at the output of the amplifier the amplifier control 2410 may adjust the switching elements of the amplifier 2402 to achieve zero voltage switching at the switching elements of the amplifier 2402. Measurements of the characteristic of the waveform may be used by the impedance matching control to determine the resonant frequency of the source. Elements of the IMN may be adjusted to bring the resonant frequency to substantially the switching frequency of the amplifier. Measurements of the characteristic of the waveform may be used by the impedance matching control to determine the value of the tunable elements of the impedance matching network that adjust the power input to or output of the amplifier to the desired level with improved amplifier efficiency.

In embodiments the amplifier control and the impedance matching control may be physically the same controller or may be separate circuits or blocks. Those skilled in the art will recognize that there are a variety of ways to implement a control block with the functionality described herein. In embodiments the control may be implemented using analog circuits using comparators, sensors, and the like. In embodiments the control may be implemented in digital hardware such as FPGAs, micro controllers, ASICS, and the like.

The device of the system may comprise an impedance matching network 2406 and a tunable switching rectifier 2408. Oscillating voltages induced on the resonator coil may be transferred through the impedance matching network 2406 and rectified into a substantially DC voltage and current at the output of the rectifier 2408 to power a load such as a battery, electronic device, and the like. The rectifier may be a controlled zero voltage switching rectifier with a tunable duty cycle or phase shift of the switching elements and may be used to control the output voltage or output current delivered to the load of the device.

The tunable elements of the switching rectifier may be controlled via a feedback loop in the device. A rectifier control 2414 may make one or more measurement of voltages and currents of the device and adjust the duty cycle or the phase shift of the switching elements of the rectifier. In embodiments the rectifier control may measure the DC voltage and current at the output of the rectifier 2420. In embodiments the duty cycle and/or the phase shift of the switching elements of the rectifier may be controlled or adjusted to achieve a constant voltage at the load or the output of the rectifier 2420. In embodiments the duty cycle and/or the phase shift of the switching elements of the rectifier may be controlled or adjusted to achieve a substantially constant current at the load or at the output of the rectifier 2420.

In a wireless energy transfer system the voltage and/or current at the load or at the output of the rectifier 2420 may need periodic or even continuous adjustment due to changes in the load parameters. In embodiments the power requirements of the load may be periodically or continuously changing. In an exemplary embodiment where the load is a battery, the power requirements may be continuously changing as the state of charge of the battery is changing. When the battery is discharged the battery may require a constant current for its initial charging cycle but as the battery becomes charged the current requirements may decrease. In the system, the rectifier control 2414 may adjust the duty cycle and/or the phase shift of the switching elements of the rectifier to provide the required voltage and/or current to the load.

In the system the duty cycle and/or phase shift of the rectifier may need periodic or constant adjustment as a result of changes in the amount of power received from the source. The power delivered to the device resonator coil 2424 may change due the source outputting less power, changes in coupling between the source resonator coil 2422 and device resonator coil 2424, movement of devices, behavior or power draw of other devices in the system and the like. For example, the coupling between the source resonator coil and device resonator coil may decrease if the device is positioned further away from the source. Due to the further positioning the power delivered to the device resonator coil 2424 may decrease. To maintain the voltage, current, or power output at the load despite the changes in the power delivered to the device resonator coil the rectifier control may increase the duty cycle of the switching elements of the rectifier to allow a larger percentage of the captured power at the device resonator coil to flow to the load.

In embodiments the rectifier control may be communicatively coupled to the source of the system. In embodiments the rectifier control may signal to the source to increase or decrease its power output based on the voltages and currents at the output of the rectifier or the operating parameters of the rectifier. If the rectifier is outside or near the maximum of its operating range and cannot increase its duty cycle or phase shift to meet the power demands of the load the device may signal the source to output more power. In embodiments the rectifier control may signal the source to output more power when the rectifier is near 50% duty cycle or near 40% duty cycle or less. In embodiments the rectifier may signal the source to decrease its output power. In embodiments when the rectifier is operating with 40% of lower duty cycle or 30% or lower duty cycle the device may be receiving more power than it needs to meet the power demands of the load. In embodiments the extra circulating power in the device and source resonator coils may cause unnecessary or extra losses, heating of elements, and the like. Extra circulating currents may result in decreased energy transfer efficiencies. In embodiments the device rectifier control may signal the source to decrease the source power output to match the power requirements at the load.

In embodiments the system may adjust the power output at the source to enable the rectifier at the device to operate at substantially 50% duty cycle or between 40% and 50% duty cycle to meet the power requirements of the load at the device. Operating near the 50% duty cycle at the rectifier may allow the rectifier to be more efficient and reduce losses due to extra circulating currents in the source or device resonator coils and components. In embodiments the device may periodically signal the source to adjust the power output of the source. In embodiments the device may periodically signal the source to identify its power demands and allow the source to determine the most appropriate power output power.

In some embodiments the device may comprise a detuning capability. In embodiments if the device is receiving too much power, or more power than its needs the device may detune its resonant frequency away from the resonant frequency of the source to reduce the power transferred to the device. In some systems the device may first try to communicate to the source its power demands and wait for the source to decrease its power output. If however the source power output does not decrease after a specific time period, the device may detune its resonant frequency to reduce the energy it captures. The device may detune its resonant frequency by adjusting one or more components in its impedance matching network. In embodiments the power demand communication back to the source and the detuning of the device resonant frequency may be performed based on the measured power demands of the load and the parameters of the rectifier needed to meet the power demands of the load. If the rectifier is operating at a duty cycle of less than 30% and meets the power demands of the load the rectifier control may detune the device or communicate to the source to decrease its power output.

FIG. 25 shows an embodiment of the system with more detailed representation of the system elements. The source may comprises the switching amplifier 2402 and the impedance matching network 2404. The amplifier may be a switching half bridge amplifier with two switching elements S1 and S2. The switching elements may any number of types of switches including field effect transistors (FETs), BJTs, electro mechanical switches, and the like. The switches may be switched on and off periodically with a fixed frequency changing the DC input voltage and current into an oscillating voltage and current at the output of the amplifier. The switching frequency and the duty cycle of the switching elements S1 and S2 may be controlled by the amplifier control 2410. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the amplifier may comprise four or more switching elements and may comprise a full bridge topology.

The impedance matching network 2404 may comprise a network of inductors L2 and capacitors C6, C5, C4 in a series and parallel configurations to the source resonator coil 2422. The topology of the elements of the impedance matching network may be tailored and adjusted for the operational requirements of the system. The network may be designed to reduce the current or peak voltage across the capacitors in some systems. In other systems the network may be designed to minimize the number of components in the network.

In embodiments the impedance matching network 2404 may include one or more tunable components. In embodiments the network 2404 may comprise a tunable capacitance C5, C4 in parallel with the resonator coil 2422. The tunable capacitance may comprise a bank of one or more capacitors that may be connected and disconnected from the circuit using one or more electronically controllable switches. For example in FIG. 25, the parallel capacitance may be adjusted by connecting or disconnecting capacitor C5 using the electronically controllable switch S3. Changes in the capacitance may be used to tune the resonant frequency of the source to correct for any perturbations or changes to the resonant frequency of the source. In embodiments the capacitance tuning may be used to maintain the resonant frequency of the source at substantially the fixed frequency of the system. In embodiments the capacitance tuning may be used to regulate the power input to or output of the amplifier at improved amplifier efficiency.

The impedance matching network may have other tunable elements such as inductors, other capacitors, resistors, and the like. The elements may be adjusted with switching elements such as the capacitor in C5 in FIG. 25. The switching element may be electronically controlled by the impedance matching control 2412 which may change the capacitance by connecting or removing one or more capacitors from the circuit.

The impedance matching network 2406 of the device may comprise a network of capacitors and inductors that set the resonant frequency of the device and impedance match the resonant coil 2424 to the rectifier 2408. The rectifier 2408 may comprise at least one active switching element. The one or more switching elements S4, S5 may be synchronized to the oscillating voltages at the input of the rectifier and may switch on and off rectifying the oscillating voltages and currents into substantially DC voltage and current at the output of the rectifier. The switches may preferably be electronically controlled switches such as transistors controlled by the rectifier control 2414. The rectifier control 2414 may control the switching characteristics such as the duty cycle of the switches to control the output voltage or current at the output of the rectifier. In embodiments the rectifier may include one or more filters to smooth or decrease the output ripple at the output voltage. The filter may be one or more capacitors or any number of other passive and active filtering topologies.

In embodiments the amplifier topologies and the rectifier topologies may be based on around the full bridge design as shown in FIG. 26. In full bridge topologies of the source the amplifier 2402 may comprise at least four switching elements S1, S2, S3, S4. In the full bridge topology the impedance matching network 2404 may be preferably symmetrical around the resonator coil 2422. The elements of the impedance matching network may be duplicated on both outputs of the amplifier. For example the inductor L2 may be duplicated on both outputs as L2 a and L2 b in the example network. The symmetric impedance matching network may include tunable components such as a bank of capacitors that may be switched in and out of the circuit. In embodiments the bank of switchable capacitors may also be symmetric such as C5 a and C5 b and switched using symmetric switches S5, S6 around the central point of the circuit.

The example system embodiment with tunable source amplifier and tunable device rectifier may have important advantages for wireless energy transfer to moving or movable devices or for systems with more than one device. In embodiments with more than one device a source with a fixed or constant switching and output frequency allows more than one device to simultaneously receive power. Tuning of the source impedance matching network to maintain the resonant frequency of the source may be necessary as devices move and change the loading and perturbations on the source resonator coil.

While the invention has been described in connection with certain preferred embodiments, other embodiments will be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art and are intended to fall within the scope of this disclosure, which is to be interpreted in the broadest sense allowable by law.

All documents referenced herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety as if fully set forth herein. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A wireless energy receiving device for wirelessly receiving energy to drive a load, comprising: a device resonator; a rectifier electrically coupled to a load and to the device resonator, the rectifier comprising controllable switching elements; and a controller coupled to the rectifier, wherein the controller is configured to control the switching elements of the rectifier to adjust an output voltage, current, or power presented to the load; and wherein in a first mode of operation of the system, the controller is configured so that, to approximately maintain the output voltage, current, or power presented to the load despite changes in power delivered to the device resonator by a source resonator, the controller changes a duty cycle or a phase of the switching elements of the rectifier to cause the output voltage, current, or power presented to the load to approach a target voltage demand, current demand, or power demand associated with the load.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is configured so that when power delivered to the device resonator is less than the power demand associated with the load, the controller increases the duty cycle of the switching elements of the rectifier to increase a percentage of the power delivered to the device resonator that is directed to the load.
 3. The system of claim 2, wherein: the controller is communicatively coupled to the source resonator; and the controller is configured to transmit a control signal to the source resonator to increase an output power level of the source resonator when the duty cycle of the switching elements of the rectifier is near to or above 50% and the output voltage, current, or power presented to the load is less than the target voltage demand, target current demand, or target power demand associated with the load.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is configured so that when the power demand associated with the load is less than a maximum load power demand, the controller reduces an output power level of the rectifier by decreasing the duty cycle or the phase of the switching elements of the rectifier.
 5. The system of claim 4, wherein: the controller is communicatively coupled to the source resonator; and the controller is configured to transmit a control signal to the source resonator to reduce an output power level of the source resonator when the duty cycle of the switching elements of the rectifier is below 40% and the output voltage, current, or power presented to the load is greater than the target voltage demand, target current demand, or target power demand associated with the load.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the rectifier has a half-bridge topology and the controller is configured to control a switching duty cycle of the switching elements of the rectifier.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the rectifier has a full-bridge topology and the controller is configured to control a switching phase of the switching elements of the rectifier.
 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to adjust at least one dead time of the switching characteristics of the switching elements of the rectifier to substantially maintain zero voltage switching.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the controller is configured to: receive information corresponding a measurement of an output voltage and an output current of the rectifier; and adjust the at least one dead time of the switching characteristics of the switching elements based on the information.
 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the load comprises a battery.
 11. The system of claim 10, wherein during a second mode of operation of the system, the system operates bidirectionally with the load driving the device resonator through the rectifier so that the device resonator generates a magnetic field, the rectifier operates as an amplifier, and the controller is configured to adjust the duty cycle of the switching elements of the rectifier such that zero voltage switching is substantially maintained.
 12. The system of claim 1, further comprising an impedance matching network coupled to the device resonator, to the rectifier, and to the controller, and comprising at least one tunable element, wherein the controller is configured to adjust the impedance matching network by adjusting the at least one tunable element.
 13. A wireless energy transfer system, comprising: a first resonator; a second resonator; a power supply; and a first plurality of switching elements connected to the power supply and to the first resonator; a second plurality of switching elements connected to a first load and to the second resonator; and a first controller connected to the first plurality of switching elements and communicatively coupled to a second controller connected to the second plurality of switching elements, wherein in a first mode of operation of the wireless energy transfer system: the power supply drives the first resonator through the first plurality of switching elements with an oscillating voltage signal; the first controller is configured to adjust a duty cycle or a phase of the first plurality of switching elements so that zero voltage switching is substantially maintained; and the first controller is configured to adjust an output power level of the oscillating voltage signal driving the first resonator in response to a change in a power demand by the first load when the first load receives power wirelessly from the first resonator, by adjusting at least one of the duty cycle of the first plurality of switching elements, the phase of the first plurality of switching elements, and a bus voltage of the first plurality of switching elements.
 14. The system of claim 13, further comprising: the second controller; and a sensor connected to the second controller, wherein the sensor is configured to measure information about the power demand by the first load.
 15. The system of claim 13, further comprising a first impedance matching network coupled to the first plurality of switching elements and to the first resonator, and comprising at least one tunable element.
 16. The system of claim 13, wherein the first load comprises a battery.
 17. The system of claim 16, further comprising the battery, wherein during a second mode of operation of the system: the battery drives the second resonator through the second plurality of switching elements to cause the second resonator to generate a magnetic field; the first resonator receives power wirelessly from the second resonator through the magnetic field generated by the second resonator; and the second controller is configured to adjust a duty cycle of the second plurality of switching elements such that zero voltage switching is substantially maintained.
 18. The system of claim 17, further comprising a second load connected to the first resonator and configured to receive power transmitted wirelessly from the second resonator to the first resonator.
 19. The system of claim 17, wherein the second controller is configured to adjust the second plurality of switching elements according to a switching frequency that defines a switching period.
 20. The system of claim 17, further comprising: a first impedance matching network coupled to the first plurality of switching elements and to the first resonator, and comprising at least one tunable element; and a second impedance matching network coupled to the second plurality of switching elements and to the second resonator, and comprising at least one tunable element.
 21. The system of claim 17, further comprising an impedance matching network coupled to the second plurality of switching elements. 